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AMERICAN 

BEGINNINGS 

IN 

EUROPE 

GORDY 

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COPlfRIGHT DEPOSm 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS 
IN EUROPE 







THE 

GENERALL HI^TORIE 

j'Mrgima.Nevv-Engkncl.ancl the Summer 

Jflc5-\vith the names oftheAdvcnturecs, 

Planters,and Governpurs from their 

firflbeginnihg An: \s a 4.to this 

prefcnt i <5'a ,4 . 

I ^c tncHcffberh ttitn be{dt tken m c^^nar 

^\lfo tJie Altps and Defcriptionsofallthofe 

Countries, their CommoaiticSjpcople , 

Govcmmcni.Cuilomes^anci Rrligion 

yet knownc . 

DmDED IKTO snCE BOOKES . 




TITLE-PAGE OF CAPTAIN JOHN SMITh's GENERALL HISTORIE OF VIRGINIA. 
FROM A COPY IN THE NEW YORfc" PUBLIC LIBRARY 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS 
IN EUROPE 



BY 

WILBUR F. GORDY 

rORMERLY SCPERINfTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, SPRINGFIELD, UASS.; AUTHOR OF "A BISTOBT 

OF THE UNITED STATES FOR SCHOOLS," "AMERICAN LEADERS AND HEROES," 

"elementary history of the UNITED STATES," " STORIES OF 

AMERICAN EXPLORERS," "COLONIAL DAYS," ETC. 



WITH MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS 



CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS 

NEW YORK CiJlCAGO BOSTON 



y 



o 



3 



1^ 



1 



COPYRIGHT, 1912, 1919, BY 

CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS 



St> lu !9fy 



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©CI.A529811 



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t PREFACE 



HiSTOKY, it has been wisely said, finds its greatest prac- 
tical value in bringing about the moral revelation of the 
world in the mind of the child. In organizing the facts of 
history with the achievement of this moral revelation in 
view, that material should be selected which the pupil 
can appreciate and understand, which will be most con- 
ducive to his moral and intellectual growth, and which 
will be most helpful in explaining his life in its relation 
to the lives of his fellows. With the puipose of thus 
making history an applied study this book has been 
written. 

The plan is based upon the outline prepared by the 
Committee of Eight for Grade VI, and in the main it fol- 
lows this outline somewhat closely. As the author was a 
member of that committee, he has had the best possible 
opportunity to know just what is the scope of the work 
which the outline was intended to cover. Moreover, 
after this repoi-t was issued he made out for the schools 
of Springfield, Mass., of which he was superintendent, a 
course of study in history for Grade VI which was much 
like that made out for the same grade by the committee. 
For three years he saw this outline thoroughly tested, in 



vi PREFACE 

the eveiy-day work of the schools. He naturally feels, 
therefore, that his experience has been very useful to him 
as a preparation for writing '^American Beginnings in 
Europe. " 

In explaining his purpose he cannot do better than 
quote the language of the Committee in its report to 
the American Historical Association. "It is by no 
means intended,'' says the report, "that the groups of 
topics outlined in Grade VI should be taught as organ- 
ized history. Such a use of the material suggested would 
utterly defeat the purpose in view. Pupils in this grade 
are not prepared to study scientific history in its log- 
ical and orderly development. But they are prepared 
to receive more or less definite impressions that may be 
conveyed to them by means of pictures, descriptions, and 
illustrative stories arranged in chronological sequence. 
In receiving such impressions they will not understand 
the full meaning of the great events touched upon, 
but they will catch something of the spirit and purpose 
of the Greeks, the Romans, and other types of racial 
life." 

It is the hope of the author that through such impres- 
sions the pupil will clearly understand that our national 
history is a part of the history of the world, and that it 
had its beginnings many centuries before Columbus 
started out on his famous voyage of discovery. For some 
of our American beginnings we are indebted to the Greeks, 
for some to the Romans, for others to the men of the Mid- 
dle Ages, and for others still to the peoples of more recent 



PREFACE vii 

eras. To make this clear the pupil is taken back in 
imagination to the time of the Greeks, the Romans, and 
the men of the Middle Ages. Simple material of great 
racial types like the Greeks and Romans is used to il- 
lustrate the traits of character of these peoples, to in- 
terest the pupil in some of their most precious memo- 
ries, and to give him some hints as to the contributions 
they have made to our civilization. In other words, the 
pupil will learn in a very simple way when and where 
some of the valuable elements of our civilization had 
their beginnings, what ways of living our forefathers 
brought with them when they came to America, and 
something of the spirit which prompted the discovery, the 
exploration, and the settlement of the New World. 

By means of such impressions, gained through pictures, 
descriptions, and illustrative stories, it is believed that the 
learner will receive influences which will enrich his in- 
tellectual and moral life and prepare him for an intelli- 
gent appreciation of the history of his own country. 
In "American Beginnings, '' it is hoped, he will get a 
glimpse of the meaning of American life which will be of 
imtold value to him in his studies at school, but especially 
in his later adult life as a citizen and as a man. 

Wherever it could be done, there has been a persistent 
effort to make representative men the centre of great move- 
ments and important situations. By getting a glimpse of 
such men as they appeared to those who knew them, and 
also some notion, even though shght, of their personal 
qualities, the pupil through his sympathetic imagination 



viii PREFACE 

comes into vital touch with the past and gets deep and 
lasting impressions. 

For the purpose of emphasizing these impressions, 
"Things to Remember '' may be used to great advan- 
tage after the reading and study of any chapter. They 
give in a nutshell some of the more important facts men- 
tioned in the text. A few significant "things" learned in 
this way will serve to give a definite and useful quality 
to the pupil's knowledge. 

The notes "To the Pupil' ^ will be found very useful 
not only in testing the child's knowledge of the text, 
but also in stimulating his interest in men and events. 
The questions are not intended to cover all the facts in 
the text. They rather call attention to the more impor- 
tant ones and suggest additional questions. They may be 
used in connection with the side topics to give variety to 
the recitation. 

Too much emphasis cannot be placed upon forming the 
important habit of locating every event on the map. Not 
only in preparing the lesson, but also in reciting it, maps 
should be brought constantly into use. Believing this, 
the author has taken special pains to see that the maps in 
this book contain no useless matter. The aim has been 
to put into them only what will help the pupil to under- 
stand the meaning of the text. 

In conclusion, I wish to acknowledge my deep obliga- 
tion to Professor Bernadotte Perrin and Professor George 
Burton Adams, of Yale University, for many valuable 
suggestions; also to Mr. Forrest Morgan, of theWatkin- 



PREFACE is 

son Library, Hartford, and to Mr. Alfred M.Hitchcock, of 
the Hartford Pubhc High School, both of whom have read 
the proof and offered most helpful criticisms; and espe- 
cially to my wife, without whose S3^mpathetic encourage- 
ment and assistance this book would not have been 
written. 

Wilbur F. Gordy 

Hartford, Conn., 
June 15, 1912 



CONTENTS 



THE PRESENT AND THE PAST 



CHAPTER 



PAGE. 



I. The Present and the Past i^ 

THE GREEKS AND WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED 
FROM THEM 

II. The Greeks and Why We Remember Them . . . U 

III. The Greeks as Builders and Artists 28; 

IV. Greek Boys and Greek INIen 38, 

V. Men Who Carried Greek Ways of Living to Other 

Lands 47^ 

THE ROMANS AND WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED 
FROM THEM 

VI. How THE Romans Began 5^ 

VIL The Struggle Between Rome and Carthage . . 65x 

VIII. The Romans in the West . 74 

IX. Rome the Capital of an Empire 85 

X. Rome and Christianity 104 

THE MIDDLE AGES AND WHAT WE HAVE 
LEARNED FROM THEM 

XL The Germans , II3 

XII. The Germans and the Romans 121 

XIII. Alfred and the English 12&. 

xi 



Xii CONTENTS 

CHAPTEB PAGE 

XIV. How THE English Began to Win Their Liberties . 144 

XV. Feudalism: OR, the Lord, THE Castle, AND THE Knight 155 

XVI. Village Life in the Middle Ages 174 

XVIL Towns and Guilds in the Middle Ages .... 179 

XVIIL The Church, the Monastep.y, and the Monks . . 185 

THE CRUSADES AND COMMERCE 

XIX. The Crusades 203 

XX. Results of the Crusades 219 

THE DISCOVERY OF THE WESTERN WORLD 

XXI. Columbus and the Discovery of America .... 229 

XXII. The Successors of Columbus 249 

XXIII. The Beginnings of Conquest 261 

RIVAL POWERS IN EUROPE AND AMERICA 

XXIV. England in the Days of Queen Elizabeth . . . 279 
XXV. France, Another Rival of Spain 296 

XXVI. The King of Spain Defied by His Dutch Subjects . 302 

XXVII. Englishmen Join in the Fight Against Spain . .310 

XXVIII. English Voyages Westward 320 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 



PAQS 



Ti tie-Page of Captain John Smith's Generall Historie of Virginia. 

From a Copy in the New York PubHc Library . . . Frontispiece 
The Mayflower, One Hundred Feet Long Over All, which Carried 

One Hundred and Two People 2 

The Olympic, Eight Hundred and Eighty-two Feet Long, which Car- 
ries Three Thousand Three Hundred and Sixty People ... 3 

A Mariner's Compass 4 

A Printing Press of the Time of Gutenberg 5 

Wheels of the Egyptians, a Chariot 6 

A Roman Plough 6 

Primitive Tools 6 

An Early Spinning Wheel 6 

An Archer Using the Long Bow 6 

Early Egyptian Pictures. Ploughing, Breaking Clods, and Sowing . 7 

Cuneiform Writing 7 

Gods Descending to Aid the Trojans 16 

A Pi^eading from Homer 17 

A Persian Soldier 19 

Athenian Foot Soldiers Charging the Persian Hosts at Marathon . 21 

Looking toward Thermopylae from the North-west 23 

A Greek Ship 26 

A Group of Greek Soldiers, Drawn from Sculptured Decorations on 

One of the Temples 26 

The Acropolis of Athens Restored 39 

Athens and the Acropolis 31 

Hermes by Praxiteles 32 

Model of the Parthenon Restored, at the Metropolitan Museum, New 

York City (Note Size of Soldier by the Column) 33 

Statue of Athene which Stood in the Parthenon 34 

Venus of Melos 34 

Zeus 35 

Greek Theatre at Epidauros 36 

Spartan Warriors 40 

Discus Thrower, by Myron 40 

Scene on the Road to Olympia 41 

xiii 



xiv LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAGE 

End of a Foot-Race — the Victor Leaping over His Fallen Rival . . 41 

Crowning an Olympic Victor 42 

Pericles 44 

Socrates 46 

Alexander the Great 50 

Alexander in Battle. From the Sarcophagus of the Satraps at Con- 
stantinople 52 

A Roman Slinger 61 

The Simple Dress of the Romans 63 

Hannibal 68 

Hannibal and His Army Crossing the Alps 69 

A Roman Seaport, Ships of War and Other Craft 73 

Julius Csesar 75 

Caesar's Bridge over the Rhine (Showing Construction) 77 

A Roman General Addressing His Troops 78 

Roman Baths at Bath, England, as They Look To-day 79 

Light Armed Soldier 81 

A Roman Camp 82 

Roman Standards 83 

A Bit of Ancient Wall of Rome 85 

The Coliseum, Rome 86 

Fighting Gladiator . . , 87 

A Chanel Race 88 

Scene at the Villa of a Rich R,oman 90 

Ruins of the Forum 92 

Arch of Trajan, Timgad, North Africa 93 

Arch of Constantine, Rome 94 

The Appian Way, a Roman Road 95 

The Aqueduct at Nimes 97 

Claudian Aqueduct on the Roman Campagna 98 

Peristyle of the House of Vettius, Pompeii 100 

A Roman Book. Papyrus Roll 102 

Juno 105 

Nero 108 

A Portion of a Wall in the Catacombs, Rome 109 

Constantine • HO 

Old Roman Bridge over the Moselle, Germany 113 

Early German and Gallic Habitations, Drawn from a Photograph of 

Those Constructed for the Paris Exposition of 1889 .... 114 
Another Type of Early German and Gallic Habitation, Drawn from 

a Photograph of One Constructed for the Paris Exposition, 1889 115 

Return of Victorious Germans from a Fight with the Romans . . 117 

Impersonation of the God Wotan on the Operatic Stage .... 118 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xv 

PAGE 

Siegfried Forging His Sword 119 

The Huns Sweeping Everything Before Them as They Invaded 

Europe .122 

Alaric 123 

Alaric and His Followers Entering Rome 125 

Ruins of a Roman Imperial Palace at Treves, Germany 126 

Charlemagne Being Crowned Emperor at Rome 129 

A Bit of Stonehenge. The Earliest Architectural Monument in 

Britain 130 

Saxon Ships 131 

The Saxon Invaders 132 

Pope Gregory I 133 

Old Roman Church of St. Martin, Canterbury 134 

St. Augustine 135 

Remains of the Viking Ship of Gokstad, After Its Removal from the 

Mound Wher^ It Was Found 137 

The Bow of the Viking Ship of Gokstad, Showing Restored Steering 

Board on the Left, and Complete Ship Above 137 

King Alfred ' . . 138 

King Alfred Inciting His Followers to Repel the Invasion of the 

Danes, Whose Ships Have Been Sighted 140 

William the Conqueror 145 

A Ship of Duke William's Fleet which Transported Troops for the 
Invasion of England. From the Bayeux Tapestry, a Contem- 
porary Work 148 

Fighting as Pictured in the Bayeux Tapestry, a Contemporary Work 146 

Armor of the Time of William the Conqueror 147 

The Norman Gateway of Windsor Castle 147 

King Richard I, the Lion-Heart 148 

Chateau Gaillard, Normandy, France. One of King Richard's Cas- 
tles, Once the Main Outpost of His Norman Territory . . . 149 

King John Signing Magna Charta 149 

Manor House, Acton Burnell, Shropshire. Built for the Holding of 

the First Parliament 151 

Westminster Hall, where Parliament Was Held 153 

The Feudal Fortifications, Carcassonne, France, as They Are To-day 156 
Eenilworth Castle, Warwickshire, Founded about 1120. Besieged 
and Taken by Royalists, 1266. Prison of Edward II in 1327. 
Granted to John of Gaunt. Scene of Entertainments to Queen 

Elizabeth, Dismantled under Cromwell ........ 159 

The Drawbridge of the Castle 161 

The Castle Towers and Battlements, Manned for Defence .... 162 

The Great Hall of the Castle, The Oath of Fealty to the Young Lord 163 



xvi LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAGE 

Inside the Main Gate of the Castle. A Minstrel Entertaining the 

Gate-Watch 164 

The Castle Court- Yard. The Return from a Foray 165 

A Part of the Ceremony of the Conferring of Knighthood .... 167 

The Vigil at Arms 168 

The Trial Gallop 169 

Armor of 1440, Said to Be the Best Period 170 

Disposition or Line-Up of Knights, at One Side of a Tourney Field, 

Showing Figure-Heads on Top of Helmets . . . . . . . . 171 

The Armor and Lance of a Knight of 1550 172 

Manor House in Suffolk, England 175 

Feeding Chickens in the Fourteenth Century, as Pictured in an Old 

Psalter 176 

Feeding Pigs in the Fourteenth Century, as Pictured in an Old Man- 
uscript 176 

Grinding with a Hand-Mill in the Fourteenth Century, as Pictured 

in an Old Manuscript 177 

Reaping in the Fourteenth Century, as Pictured in an Old Psalter . . 177 

Threshing in the Fourteenth Century, as Pictured in an Old Psalter . 178 

Ploughing in the Fourteenth Century, as Pictured in an Old Psalter . 178 

One of the Old City Gates of York, England 180 

The City Walls of York, England .181 

Phoenix Tower and a Bit of the Old City Wall, Cheste-, England . . 182 

Butchers' Guild Hall, Hereford, England 183 

The lona Monastery Buildings which Exist To-day and Date from 
the Eleventh Century. The Cathedral Dates from the Thir- 
teenth to the Sixteenth Century 186 

Interior of lona Monastery Cathedral 187 

St. Benedict Performing Miracles, after the Painting by Rubens . . 188 

Monks at Work in the Monastery Kitchen 189 

A Monk Dressed in the Woollen Cassock 190 

Melrose Abbey, Roxburghshire, Scotland. Founded in 1136 by the 

Cistercian Order, Sometimes Called the "White Monks" . . 191 
Bolton Priory, Yorkshire, England. Founded in 1120 by the Augus- 

tinian Order. The Prior Was a Great Feudal Dignitary . . . 192 

A Concert in the Monastery 193 

Monks Engaged in Literary Work and Copying 194 

A Greatly Reduced Page of Illuminated MS. of the Thirteenth 

Century 196 

Furness Abbey, Lancashire, England. Founded in 1127 by the Cis- 
tercian Order. The Abbot of the Monastery Not Only Possessed 
Jurisdiction over the Monks, but Governed the People of the 

Region as Well 197 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xvii 

PAGE 

Fountains Abbey, Yorkshire, England, Founded in 1132 by the Cis- 
tercian Order 199 

View of Jerusalem, from an Old Engraving 204 

Pope Urban II Presiding over the Council of Clermont in 1095 and 
Calling the Christian People to the First Crusade for the Deliv- 
erance of the Holy Land, after an Engraving of the Sixteenth 

Century 206 

Peter the Hermit Preaching to His Followers 208 

The Crusaders before Jerusalem 210 

Vision of St. George on Mt. Olivet 212 

Godfrey Enters Jerusalem 213 

Richard and Saladin in Battle 214 

Blondel Hears the Voice of Richard 216 

Venice, which Played Such an Important Part in the Development 

of Commerce 220 

A Door- Way in the Alhambra. The Alhambra Was the Fortress Pal- 
ace of the Moorish Kings at Granada, Spain 224 

Gallery of the Court of Lions, the Alhambra 226 

Marco Polo 229 

A Section of a Caravan. The Camels Have Been Unloaded and Are 

Resting 231 

Prince Henry 233 

Vessels of the Fifteenth Century 234 

Christopher Columbus 235 

Tablet Marking the House in Genoa where Christopher Columbus 

Was Born .236 

Columbus at the Court of King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella . . . 237 

The Convent of St. Mary, near Palos, where Columbus Stopped . . 238 

Room Occupied by Columbus in the Convent of St. Mary .... 238 
Pinta, Santa Maria, Nina. Reproductions of the Vessels of Colum- 
bus's Fleet as They Appeared in New York Waters During the 

Centennial Celebration of 1892 239 

Departure of Columbus from Palos 241 

Columbus Taking Possession of the Land in the Name of King Ferdi- 
nand and Queen Isabella 243 

The Triumphal Entry of Columbus into Barcelona 244 

Americus Vespucius 249 

Sebastian Cabot 251 

St. John's Gate, Bristol, England. A Landmark Contemporary with 

Cabot's Residence in Bristol 252 

Balboa 255 

The Strait of Magellan 258 

Cartier 259 



xviii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAOB 

Cortez 262 

Cortez Parading His Followers Before the Messengers from Monte- 
zuma 264 

The Death of Montezuma 265 

A Street in Cuzco, Peru, To-day, Showing Houses Built upon the Old 

Inca Walls 267 

The Spanish Soldiers of Pizarro Seize the Inca 268 

The Inca Making the Mark upon the Wall 269 

DeSoto 270 

De Soto's Fight with the Indians 272 

De Soto's Grave in the Mighty River He Had Discovered .... 273 

An Old Spanish Mission in New Mexico, Erected in 1604 .... 276 

Queen Elizabeth 280 

The Ancient Palace at Greenwich Called Placentia, the Birthplace of 

Queen Elizabeth 281 

Queen Elizabeth in One of Her Many Royal Costumes 282 

Sir Walter Raleigh's Cloak 283 

Queen Elizabeth at Kenilworth Castle 284 

English Ladies of Queen Elizabeth's Time . » 285 

Elizabethan Costumes, from an Old Print 285 

An Elizabethan Room and Furnishings 286 

A Spanish Ship of Elizabeth's Time 287 

A Dash for Liberty. An Incident of the Early Slave-Trade . . . 288 

Drake Sees the Pacific 290 

Drake in the Pacific Overtaking a Spanish Ship on Her Way from 

China 291 

Drake's Men Boarding a Spanish Treasure-Ship in the Pacific . . . 292 
Queen Elizabeth Knighting Drake on Board the Golden Hind, at 

Deptford, April 4, 1581 293 

Martin Luther 294 

Francis I 298 

Chevalier Bayard 299 

Old Spanish Gate, St. Augustine 300 

In the Windmill Country, Holland 303 

The Reproduction of Hudson's Half Moon, at the Time of the Hud- 
son-Fulton Celebration in New York Waters, 1909 303 

The Emperor, Charles V 304 

King Philip II 305 

Duke of Alva 306 

William, Prince of Orange 308 

Sir Philip Sidney 311 

Sir Francis Drake 312 

English Man-of-War about 1588 313 



LIST OF MAPS xix 

PAGE 

Frobisher 314 

Hawkins .... 315 

One of the Finest Flag-Ships Surrendered to Drake without a Protest 

When It Fell in His Way 316 

Deck Scene on One of the Ships of the Armada during the Fight, 

Showing Some of the Spanish Armor of That Time 317 

Sir Humphrey Gilbert 321 

Sir Walter Raleigh . . •. 323 

The Arrival of the Englishmen in Virginia. From a Drawing by John 

White, of Raleigh's First Colony, 1585 325 

The Lost Colony . . , 327 



LIST OF MAPS 

PAGE 

Ancient Greece (Colored) Between pages 10 and 11 

Colonies of Phoenicia and Greece (Colored) . . Between pages 12 and 13 

Alexander's Empire (Colored) Between pages 48 and 49 

The Wars with Carthage, Hannibal's March to Frontier of Italy . . 67 
The Roman Empire at the Beginning of the Christian Era .... 106 

The Barbarian Kingdoms (Colored) Facing page 124 

England at the Close of King Alfred's Reign 141 

General Map of the Crusades 217 

The World, as Known in the Time of Columbus, Showing Eastern 

Trade Routes 247 

English and Spanish Explorers of America 253 

Balboa's Route and the Discovery of the Pacific Ocean 256 

Map Showing Route of Cortez 266 

Routes of Narvaez, De Soto, and Ponce De Leon, v/ith Huguenot 

Settlements and Raleigh's Colonies 274 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 

CHAPTER I 
THE PRESENT AND THE PAST 

I. The Strong Men of the Past Our Teachers. — ^We stories of 
all listen with eager interest to stories of heroic men and help us"to^ 
their brave deeds. Such stories appeal to us because they ^^Y^ ?^°^® 
point to the noble things we too may do if we learn to 
hold noble ideals and aims and to take up hard tasks. 
They somehow make us feel grateful to the strong men 
whose deeds they tell of; for as we read we easily believe 
these men were in many ways much like ourselves, 
even though they lived in different times and countries 
and worked in ways quite unlike our own. While in 
imagination we join with them in meeting their dangers 
and in solving their problem^s, we learn how to live more 
wisely and how to be of greater service to others. We 
know that many of the things these heroes of long ago 
had to learn before they succeeded in doing their work 
are the very things we too must learn if we are to be 
successful. 

These men of the past; to whom v/e owe so much, do These men 
not belong to any one time or countiy. Some of them beionVt? 
hved thousands of years ago, some but hundreds of years ^^iTand 
ago, and still others in more recent times. Many had countries 
their homes in ancient Greece and Rome, many in the 
European countries of the Middle Ages, and even more 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



The purpose 
of tills book 



belonged to more modern times and countries. But in 
whatever age or country they Hved^ many of the things 
they did are still helping us to-day. For what we are 
as a people is largely the outcome of the struggles of 
many men, of many ages, and of many lands. 

Of course it is not always easy to trace the relation be- 
tween the lives of men in far-away days and our own. 
Nor is it possible in this little book, even though it were 
desirable, to give the history of such men or of the periods 
or countries in which they lived. The pages which follow 
do not contain what we call organized histoiy. But it 
is hoped that in them you may get a few im- 
pressions which will help you to understand 
the spirit and purpose of the Greeks, the 
Romans, and other peoples who have done 
something to make our civilization w^hat 
it is. If you get such impressions you 
will understand better the meaning of your 
THE " MAYFLOWER," ONE HUNDRED Qwu historv wlieu vou como to study it, 

FEET LONG OVER ALL, WHICH CAR- ^ '^ *^ .1 

KiED ONE iiuNDRED AND TWO aud Tvdll sec more clearly the bearing of 

PEOPLE . 

all histoiy upon your own life. 
2. Where Americans Came From. — Not only do our 
ways of living come from many lands, but our people 
do as well. Our forefathers were emigrants from sev- 
eral countries, and millions of people living in the United 
States to-day were born across the sea. These millions 
of foreign-born men and w^omen represent every civilized 
country of the world. Even in our own community it is 
probable there are people from many lands. 
Howimmi- ivlost, if not all, have come to the United States oe 
grants come q^q^^^ steamships, some of which now travel with great 




New-comers 
in our own 
land 



TIiE PRESENT AND THE PAST 



speed and carry people enough to fill a whole town. The 
fastest and best make the voyage from England or France 
to New York or Boston in five or six days, and carry 
from 2,000 to 3,000 
passengers. Some of 
these steamers have 
four or five decks, 
with passenger eleva- 
tors, telephones, and 
other conveniences^ 
making them like 
large floating hotels. 

Of course you Imow 
that most of the im- 
migrants of to-day 
come over as third- 
class, or steerage, pas- 
sengers. Before they 
are admitted to any 
of our ports — New 
York City, for exam- 
ple — they are exam- 
ined by the proper offi- 
cials to see if they meet 

the requirements of our laws for admission into this coun- 
try. These laws require that immigrants shall be free from 
serious disease, shall not be convicts, and shall be self- 
supporting. If they pass the examination the new-comers 
are free to go wherever they like, and, unless they decide 
to remain in New York, they travel by railroad to the 
places which they wish to make their new homes. 




THE OLYMPIC, EIGHT HUNDRED AND EIGHTY-TWO FEET 
LONG, WHICH CARRIES THREE THOUSAND THREE HUNDKED 
AND SIXTY PEOPLE 



The ad- 
mission of 
immigranta 
to this 
country 



4 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 

Earlier Far different was it with those who in earher days 

f^migrants found their way to the western world. As you may 
already know, among the first emigrants to settle in our 
country were the Pilgrims, who landed at Plymouth in 
1620. They knew nothing of the luxuries of the great 
modern steamship. They set sail in the Mayflower^ a 
boat which carried only 102 passengers, of whom 20 
w^ere boys and 8 were girls. Long weeks and months 
they were at sea. They suffered many trying experi- 
ences, and at times must have longed for the simple home 
comforts they had left behind. At last the tempest- 
driven Mayflower, with sails rent and timbers strained, 
dropped anchor safely after she had been sailing sixty-four 
days. The difference between the voyage of 1620 and 
that of to-day marks the progress of nearly three cent- 
uries in the speed and comfort of ocean travel. 
Some 3. What Americans Started With. — ^When the emi- 

Sventfons grants from Europe came tp America in the seventeenth 
century they brought with them much that the people 
of Europe had learned up to that time. But they knew 

nothing about many ways of do- 
ing things that we know to-day. 
The steamship, the railroad, 
the trolley-car, the spinning- 
machine, the power loom, the 
sewing-machine, the telegraph, 
A MAKiNEKs COMPASS ^ud tho tclcphone had not been 

invented. These and other in- 
ventions have come into use since the Pilgrims first 
landed on the " bleak New England shore." 
But fortunately for the Pilgrims and others who set- 




THE PRESENT AND THE PAST 5 

tied in America in the seventeenth century, many things inventions 
had been invented before their day. Among the most the^c^om/ng^ 
useful of these were the mariner's compass, gunpowder, ^^.^^-^ 




A PRINTING-PRESS OF THE TIME OF GT7TENBERO 



and the printing-press. With the compass as a guide, 
sailors were ready as they had never been before to vent- 
ure far out into the sea in search of undiscovered shores; 
gunpowder made it easier to overcome wild and savage 
peoples; and the printing-press spread abroad the knowl- 
edge of new-found lands and of what men were doing 
everywhere. By the use of such inventions men could 
wield more power over the forces of nature and, what 
was of still greater advantage, could accomplish far more 
'n their work together. The printing-press has been of 
t^special value in cheapening the cost of books and thus 
enabling a much greater number of people to profit by 
the wisdom of the ages. 



Still older 
inventions 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 




WHEELS OF THE EGYPTIANS, A CHAMOT 



A ROMAN PLOUGH 




PRIMITIVE TOOLS 



These inventions had been made many years before 
Columbus crossed the Atlantic; and very much earlier 
were many others which to-day 
seem so commonplace that we 
do not think of them as inven- 
tions at all. Some of them are 
the house, the boat, the bow^ 
the hatchet, the plough, and the 
spinning-wheel. It was many 
years before the rude man of primi- 
tive days learned to build a house to 
shelter himself, a boat to 
carry himself and his goods 
over the water, a 
plough to break up 
the soil, and a 
way to express 
his thoughts and 
feelings in wiit- 
ten words and 
sentences so as 
to make a per- 
manent record. 





AN EARLY SPINNING-WHEEi 



AN ARCHER USING THE 
LONG LOW 



THE PRESENT AND THE PAST 




4. The Invention of the Alphabet. — This last is one 
of the most remarkable inventions ever made in the his- 
tory of the world. But like most others it came about 
slowly, by various 
steps in a long 
process. Writing 
was used long be- 
fore printing or earlt Egyptian pictuees. ploughing, breakeng clods, 

AND SOWING 

even the letters 

of the alphabet. Instead of words the Egyptians in the 
earlier days used pictures. But as they had neither 
paper nor ink, they employed tools of hardened bronze 
and made the pictures on stone. 

For instance, if they wished to write the word for 
man, they cut on the stone a picture of a man, or if 
they wished to write the word for 
cat, they cut a picture of a cat. 
The first step, then, was to use 
a picture for every word. The 
second step was to use a picture 
for a syllable. In this case the pict- 
ure was followed closely by other 
pictures. The third and final step 
was the use of a picture for a sin- 
gle letter. In this way the alpha- 
bet as we know it to-day grew 
out of pictures. 
The Babylonians as far back as 
we know them had already gone beyond picture writing, 
and wrote in an alphabet of their own. They used tab- 
lets of clay and wrote with a bronze tool called the stylus. 





CDKEIPOKM WBITINa 



The 

Egyptians 
used pictures 
instead of 
words 



The first, 
second, and 
third steps 
in the use 
of pictures 



The wedge« 
shaped 
letters of 
the Baby- 
lonians 



8 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



The alphabet 
as we know 
it to-day 



Men's 
knowledge 
of geog- 
raphy in 
different 
ages 



As this was square at the end and they used only a 
corner of it in writings the mark left on the clay had 
the shape of a wedge. Hence arose the name ^^cunei- 
form'/' which means wedge-shaped. 

The use of the alphabet as we know it to-day came 
later. Just when and by whom it was invented is uncer- 
tain. It is believed by some that the Cretans were the 
inventors of the alphabet and that the Phoenicians carried 
it to Greece. 

5. How People of Any Age Learn from the Past. — It 
appears, therefore, from this brief glance backward, that 
we Americans about three hundred years ago, when John 
Smith and other Enghshmen reached Jamestown and 
the Pilgrims reached Plymouth, started with many things 
which had been invented or discovered in the ages long 
before our ancestors ever dreamed of coming to Amer- 
ica. Such has ever been the way, for it has always been 
true that when the men of any time found out a way of 
doing things which helped them to live with greater ease 
and comfort, those who came after them continued to use 
these ways of working, unless they found better ones. In 
this manner the people of each age profit by the experi- 
ence of those who have lived before them, and at the same 
time they themselves invent new ways of doing things. 
Thus the old stock of ideas is ever being added to, each 
period in the world's histoiy improving a little on what 
has gone before. 

6. The World as Known When the Christian Era 
Began. — The world in 1620, for instance, when the Pil- 
grims landed at Plymouth, was quite different from what 
it was in 1492, when Cohunbus discovered America. Nor 



THE PRESENT AND THE PAST 9 

was the difference wholly in ways of living brought about 
by useful inventions. It was also in men's greater knowl- 
edge of geography. By consulting the map you will see 
how different was the earth's surface in 1620 from what 
it was as known in the time of Columbus, and, again, 
how different still it was at the beginning of the Chris- 
tian era, that is, nearly fifteen hundred years before 
Columbus found his way to the New World. 

The names by which some of the ancient peoples a^e what some 
known are not the same as the names by which the peo- pie^^of^an- 
ple now living in these countries are known. For ex- cient times 

^ ... . were called 

ample, those living in what is now England were called 
Britons; those in France were called Gauls; those in 
Spain were called Iberians; and the chief part of those 
in Italy were called Romans. But even in those far- 
away times the men of Greece were called Greeks, though, 
to be sure, they called themselves Hellenes. 

The most intelligent of these peoples v/ere the Greeks, The Greeks 
yet in the early day of their history they knew little of ^^J^^hy 
what lay beyond their own boundaries. Their ideas of 
geography were hazy and fanciful. They believed the 
earth to be a plane stretching from the ^Egean Sea in 
all directions far away into unknown regions. They 
thought that at the extreme north was an island, which 
had been discovered by Pytheas, a sailor from Mar- 
seilles. They called it Ultima Thule, which means most 
distant goal. The best authority now holds that this 
was not a real island, but the coast of Norway. 

THINGS TO REMEMBER 

1. Our ways of living have come from many lands, and there- 
iFore we owe much to the past, which we learn through the study 



10 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 

of history. 2. Many of the people Kving in our country to-day 
came from other countries, just as our forefathers did. 3. When 
the emigrants from Europe came to America in the seventeenth 
century they brought with them many ways of doing things that 
the people of Europe had learned up to that time. 

TO THE PUPIL 

1. In what ways do the stories of heroic men help us to live more wisely ? 

2. From what countries do most of the immigrants to our land come 
now? Which of these countries are represented by immigrants in your 
own community? 

3. From what countries did our forefathers come? 

4. How do immigrants come to-day, and how did our forefathers come? 

5. Name some modern inventions which the Pilgrims knew nothing 
about. Name three important ones made before the Pilgrims came; and 
also some older inventions. 

6. How do people of any age learn from the past? 



THE GREEKS AND WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED 
FROM THEM 

CHAPTER II 
THE GREEKS AND WHY WE REMEMBER THEM 

7. What We Owe to the Greeks and the Romans. — ■ 
There is little doubt but that we owe more to the Greeks 
and the Romans than to any other people of ancient times. 
Although they lived "over two thousand years ago and 
far away on the shores of the Mediterranean^ yet from 
them we have learned many things. Our ways of living 
would be very different had not our ancestors brought with 
them to America Greek and Roman ideas; for many of our 
ways are but Greek and Roman ways slightly changed. 

8. Geographical Conditions in Greece. — The main- The size 
land of Greece was but a small countr}^; about the size of o? Greece 
Maine or South Carolina^ and six times the size of Con- 
necticut. But it was quite unlike any of these States 

in outline or surface. It was a roughly triangular pe- 
ninsula. Its most striking feature was its rugged moun- its rugged 
tains, Mount Olympus being the highest peak. mountains 

The high ridges and peaks cut the land into hundreds The land 
of upland plains and valleys, some of which were only Sid^kLas^ 
tiny basins of a few acres or even less lying among the ^"^ valleys 
hills. Everywhere the mountains were so steep and 
unbroken that but few roads or even paths connected 
one valley with another. 

In these upland plains and valleys, shut in by towering 

11 



12 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



mountains; lived small groups of people, most of them 
farmers and shepherds. Since in most parts of Greece the 
soil was thin and bare, the men dwelling in these moun- 
tain towns had to work hard to make a living from their bar- 
ley, wheat; and flaX; and their herds and flocks on the hills. 

In one way these conditions worked for good; by making 
the men strong; sturdy; and self-reliant. But in another 
way their effect was bad, since the people saw little of 
others Hving outside their own small community; and thus 
became narrow in their ideas and petty in their interests. 

But the mountains; which shut them off from other 
communities also defended them from the ravages of war. 
Even the mountain passes were so few and narrow that a 
small number of brave men could hold back an advancing 
enemy. 

Another feature in the geography of Greece which kept 
the towns — or city-stateS; as they later came to be called 
— apart from each other was the smallness of its rivers. 
If there had been a great river running through the 
country it would have helped to bring about trade be- 
tween the various groups living near its banks. But the 
rivers were all short; because the mountains were at no 
point far from the sea. At the end of winter they 
were full and strong; while at the end of summer they 
became either mere threads of water or dry beds. But 
when they were full of water the current rushed with such 
force that no boat could sail upon a single river of Greece. 

Although the Greek communities of the mainland were 
separated from each other; few of them were cut off from 
the sea. The eastern and north-western coasts of Greece 
were full of bays and inlets reaching up into the land. 



THE GREEKS AND WHY WE REMEMBER THEM 13 

and these had good harbors. Moreover, the sea was safe, 
having as a rule regular winds and clear skies, except in 
the short winter. In case of a storm the sailors were 
never far from a good harbor, for the islands in the ^Egean 
Sea lay close together and provided safe anchorage. 

These islands stretched in long lines from the shores of Greek 
Greece to the coast of Asia Minor, which made it easy to ^aders^^ 
make quite long trips without going far from land. This 
encouraged trade, and many of the Greeks became sailors 
and traded extensively. It was their life on the sea that 
more than all else brought the Greeks into touch with other 
lands and peoples and developed so strongly their power 
of imagination. No other country in ancient days was so 
open to the commerce of the world. 

9. The Expansion of Greece. — But these mountain Early 
people, whom we have just described, were only a small 
part of the Greeks. At an early day the mother coun- 
try on the continent began to send out colonies to other 
lands and continued to do so until the Greeks had spread 
over much of the ancient world as it was known at that 
time. By the beginning of the fifth century there were 
not only Greeks on their mainland of the Balkan penin- 
sula, but also Greeks in Sicily and the south part of the 
Italian peninsula, Greeks on the islands and shores of 
the ^Egean basin, and Greeks elsewhere on the shores of 
the Mediterranean Sea and its tributaries. In fact, What Greece 
Greece, or Hellas, included not only all of the home included 
country, but also the larger Greek world outside of the 
home country. It should be noted also that the cult- 
ure of the maritime Greeks was in early days far in 
advance of that of the Greeks of Greece proper and 



colonies 



14 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



culminated in the splendor of such cities as Ephesus 
and Miletus on the coast of Asia Minor. 

10. Jason and the Golden Fleece. — ^Although the an- 
cient Greeks long since passed away they left behind 
great memories for all who came after them to cherish. 
Among these are the wonderful stories they told^ the 
famous cities they built; and the heroic deeds of their 
great men. 

The stories which they delighted to tell and which they 
mshed their children to learn are not in most of their de- 
tails what we should call true stories. But they merit 
mention here because they point to the kind of heroes 
the Greeks honored and to the kind of deeds they admired; 
and still more Ijecause it was these heroes that they tried 
to imitate^ and in so trying they did become more hke 
them. 

One of the most interesting is the story of Jason and the 
Golden Fleece. Jason^ heir to the kingdom of lolchis, was 
kept from his throne by Pelias, an uncle, who was hold- 
ing it for him until he should become old enough to reign. 
One day young Jason came into the presence of his imcle 
and declared he now wished the throne for himself. Pe- 
lias promised to yield it to him, but at the same time ad- 
\ased that before he became Idng he should win glory for 
himself by going in search of the Golden Fleece. This 
fleece hung in a grove in Colchis, far from Greece, and was 
guarded day and night by a fire-breathing dragon which 
never slept. Pelias, of course, expected that Jason would 
never come back. 

Pleased with the idea, Jason at once began to build a 
fifty-oared ship. When it was ready, with fifty brave 



THE GREEKS AND WHY WE REMEMBER THEM 15 

young men he started out on his bold adventure. The 
ship was called the Argo, and the young men the 
ArgonautS; or Argo-sailors. Having reached Colchis 
after many dangers, Jason made known his errand to 
the King. That ruler had no notion of parting with the 
Golden Fleece, but thought he would soon rid himself 
of this bold adventurer. 

He therefore set Jason two impossible tasks, and told Jason 
him that when he had performed them the Golden Fleece fire-breath- 
should be his. One of the tasks w^as to plough a field with *°^ ^^^ 
two fire-breathing bulls; the other was to plant the teeth 
of a dragon which had long before been slain by a foreign 
adventurer named Cadmus. By the aid of the King's 
daughter Medea, who had fallen in love with Jason and 
who was skilled in magic, Jason tamed the bulls so that 
the}^ were easy to manage. 

Then, after ploughing the field, he planted the dragon's jason plants 
teeth, from every one of which sprang forth an armed teeth^and^^ 
soldier eager for battle. Rushing at Jason to cut him ^ragon^^ 
down, the warriors were suddenly surprised by a stone 
which Jason threw among them. Each believing that 
he had been struck by his neighbor, they all at once began 
to fight each other and continued the fierce struggle until 
all were dead. Jason next turned to the dragon. By the 
use of Medea's magic he put him to sleep and slew him. 
Then securing the Golden Fleece he carried it back to • 
his own kingdom. 

II. Hercules a Famous Greek. Hero. — Another of the Thetwdve 
heroes of whom the Greeks were proud was Hercules. It 
was said that when only a few months old he strangled 
two serpents that made an attack on him. But what made 



16 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



him famous was the twelve labors he performed by order 
of the king he served. These labors reqxiired great 
strength and skill. Four of them were single combats with 
strange wild animals — the first with a huge lion, the sec- 
ond with a hydra having nine heads, the third with a stag 
having golden antlers and brazen feet, and the fourth with 
a wild boar. Another remarkable feat was the bringing 
from the lower world of the three-headed dog Cerberus, 
which guarded the gates of Hades. 

12. The Trojan War. — ^But the most famous of all the 
Greek tales were those centred about the Trojan War, 
many episodes of which are told in Homer's poems called 

^'Thelhad'^and 
^^ The Odyssey," 
According to 
the story as told 
in "The Iliad/' 
Agamemnon was 
King of Greece, 
and his brother 
Menelaus was 
King of Sparta under him. In Asia Minor, just across the 
Mgesm Sea, was a city called Troy, whose long was named 
Priam. Menelaus's wife Helen was the most beautiful 
woman in Greece. Once when Priam's son Paris was 
visiting Menelaus he won the love of Helen, and carried 
her back to Troy with him. He refused to give her up. 
To force him to do so, Agamemnon gathered an army 
from all Greece and made war against Troy, which after ten 
years was captured and burned. The story of the wooden 
horse tells how they entered and captured the city. 




GODS DESCENDING TO AID THE TROJANS 



THE GREEKS AND WHY WE REMEMBER THEM 17 

The most noted Greek hero of this war was Achilles, Achilles 
f>.nd the bravest of the Trojans was Priam^s son Hector, Hector 
who was slain by Achilles in a famous combat. 

13. The Story of Odysseus. — Another favorite hero of Odysseus 
this war was Odysseus (Ulysses), Ejng of Ithaca, a little tenyears 
island on the west coast of Greece. In order to save him- 




A READING FROM HOMER 



self and his companions on his way homeward, he blinded 
one of the Cyclops, one-eyed sons of Poseidon, god of the 
sea. In punishment for this act, Poseidon kept Odysseus 
wandering for ten years before permitting him to make 
safe return to Ithaca. During that time, in which he 
lost all his men, he had many thrilling adventures, which 
are recounted in Homer's ^^ Odyssey" (the stoiy of 
Odysseus). 

14. Famous Greek Cities. — Fascinating as are these 
stories of adventure — full of pictures of Greek thought and 
character — the life of their cities is not less interesting. 
Some of the more important ones which played a large part 
in the life of ancient Greece still keep their names to-day. 



18 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 

Among them are AthenS; Corinth; Thebes, and Sparta. 
Every one of these can trace its history back to the time 
when Greece was in her gloiy, and even now they are worth 
seeing and knomng. But they have a far deeper interest 
to those of us who know sometliing of their ancient hfe 
and growth and what their people did many hundred 
years ago. Athens and Sparta will claim our attention 
when we speak a little later of the Athenians and of the 
Spartans. 

15. Undying Memories of Greek Courage. — The fa- 
mous Greek stories and cities which we have mentioned 
constantly remind us of what the Greek people were and 
what they acliieved. But stronger reminders still are the 
undying memories of Greek courage; for, after all, among 
the most precious things we possess is the knowledge of 
the deeds of brave men. Among the many instances of 
Greek courage we will recount only a few, which will help 
us to see how resolute and freedom-loving these people 
were. 
Greek 1 6. The First Persian Invasion. — ^As we have already 

seen, much of the soil of Greece was thin and bare. For 
that reason the country could not support a large popula- 
tion, and the Greeks were driven to planting colonies on 
neighboring shores, as, for example, on the islands of the 
iEgean Sea and in Asia Minor, in southern Italy and Sicily, 
and on what is now the French and Spanish coast. Of 
these we have already spoken. 
The revolt After a time the Greek cities in Asia Minor became so 

cities in Asia numerous and so strong that they rose in revolt against 
Minor ^YiQ Persian King, Darius, who held them under his rule. 

To this revolt Athens and its neighbor city Eretria lent 



THE GREEKS AND WHY WE REMEMBER THEM 19 




their aid, Athens sending twenty ships and Eretria five. 

This made King Darius so angry that as soon as he had Darius 

put down the revolt in Asia Minor he fixed his mind upon ^^^^ 

a plan to punish these two insolent cities. 

Lest in the rush of other occupations he should 

forget his purpose, he ordered his cup-bearei-, 

according to Herodotus, a Greek historian, to 

remind him at every banquet of the insult he 

had received by saying, "Master, remember 

the Athenians.'^ 

How much truth there may be in this story 
we do not knov/, but in the year following the 
end of the revolt Darius began to make prep- 
arations to invade Greece. First he sent 
heralds to all the principal Greek cities to de- 
mand earth and water as a sign of submission. 
This was according to the customs of those 
days. Some of the cities obeyed the King's order, but 
the Athenians and the Spartans dared to defy the Per- 
sian monarch. According to Herodotus, the Athenians 
threw the herald that came to them into a pit where he 
could get earth, and the Spartans threw theirs into a well 
where he could get water. Of course these defiant in- 
sults made Darius more angry than ever. 

In 490 B. C. Darius sent his army against Greece. It The Per- 
soon captured and burned Eretria. Then the Persians at Marathon 
made a landing at Marathon, a plain about twenty-four 
miles north-east of Athens, and anchored their ships near 
the shore close by their camp. 

Even before this landing the Athenians had heard of the 
burning of Eretria and had sent Pheidippides, a profes- 



A PERSIAN SOLDIER 



He demands 
earth and 
water 



20 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 

The Athe- sional ruiiner; to Sparta for aid. He ran with such speed 
to^Sparta that he covered the enthe distance of one hundred and 
for aid ££^y miles between Athens and Sparta — ^which is the same 

as the distance between New York and Albany or between 
Cleveland and Pittsburg — in two days or less. The Spar- 
tans told the messenger to say to the Athenians that they 
could not at that time send troops^ because the full moon 
was at hand; when all citizens must celebrate the feast of 
Apollo. ^'We will send aid/' they said, ^^in about five 
days. " This meant that they could not reach the battle- 
field for at least a week. 
The Athe- Meanwhile the Athenians marched with all possible speed 

at^Marathon to Marathon^ and pitched their camp between the Persian 
army and Athens. Here they were j oined by one thousand 
men from the friendly little city of Platsea. This made 
the Athenian army about eleven thousand, while the 
Persian army, according to the estimate of Herodotus, 
was many times as large. Miltiades, who had made 
himself a great lord over the Thracian barbarians to the 
north, had command of the Greeks on the day of the 
battle. 
The battle For some days no movement was made by either side. 

But finally the Persians, who had become impatient, drew 
up in line of battle along the shore. The Athenians, who 
were almost a mile away, advanced at a very quick step 
• which was almost a run. After a long and hard strug- 
gle they defeated the Persians and drove them to their 
ships. During the last part of the battle it is said that 
the hands of a Greek soldier were cut off as he clung to 
a Persian vessel in his desperate purpose to prevent its 
escape. 



THE GREEKS AND WHY WE REMEMBER THEM 21 




ATHENIAN FOOT SOLDIEKS CHAEGING THE PERSIAN HOSTS AT JLVRATHON 

The Persians embarked very sv/iftly and sailed away, ThePer- 
heading for Athens, v/here they expected traitors in the ^adf to^^ 
city to rise and help them. But Miltiades ralHed his army ^^^^ 
and hurried homeward, not stopping to rest his tired sol- 
diers until they had come to the city. He reached Athens 
in advance of the Persians, who, finding the city thus de- 
fended and the traitors not daring to rise, sailed back to 
Asia without making an attack. 

This victory of Marathon v/as a glorious achievement 
for Athens and saved for us the wonderful Greece that 
we know. Its memory gave the people courage and self- 
reliance and spurred them to greater things. 

The Athenians were right in believing that they had TheAthe- 
not seen the last of the Persians, and they were persuaded ^ ^ 
by Themistocles, one of their statesmen, to build a navy 
of two hundred ships. From this beginning Athens later 
became a strong naval power. 



A glorious 
achievement 



22 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



Xerxes and 
his army 



A wonder- 
ful sight 



Crossing the 
Hellespont 



The line 
of march 



17. The Second Persian Invasion. — Five years after 
the Persians were defeated at Marathon, Darius died. 
But he had begun, before his death, to prepare for an- 
other invasion of Greece. His son Xerxes, who succeeded 
to the throne, continued these preparations on a very 
large scale. In the spring of 480 B. C. he marched against 
Greece. His army was the largest that the men of that 
time had ever seen. It is said that it contained at least 
half a million men (the romantic estimate of Herodotus 
was over five millions), and that the fleet consisted of 
more than three thousand ships of various kinds, though 
none larger than a small yacht of our day. 

This army presented a wonderful sight. There were 
men in it from forty-six nations and tribes, each wearing 
their own peculiar costumes and carrying strange kinds 
of arms. One tribe of Persians had daggers and lassoes; 
while a band of Ethiopians carried, in addition to their 
javelins, stone-tipped arrows with shafts of reeds. Skins 
cf wild beasts hung from their shoulders, and their bodies 
were painted half red and half white. 

To prevent delay, Xerxes had ordered in advance that 
a bridge of boats be built across the Hellespont (Darda- 
nelles, separating Asia from Europe), and that it should be 
all ready on the arrival of his army. It required seven 
days and seven nights for the Persian forces to cross this 
bridge, which was nearly one mile long. 

Let us picture to ourselves the army as it presses for- 
ward. The baggage trains and infantry headed the line 
of march. Behind them came the cavaliy and then ten 
sacred horses with costly trappings. These were followed 
by the sacred chariot, drawn by eight white horses, the 



THE GREEKS AND WHY WE REMEMBER THEM 23 

charioteer walking behind; with reins in hand; for no 
one was ever allowed to enter this sacred chariot. Then 
came Xerxes himself; a veiy handsome man, riding in a 
splendid chariot and surrounded by a thousand horse- 
guards with golden apples ornamenting their spears. 
After Xerxes came the ten thousand ^^ Immortals,'' picked 
men of Persian birth. Last of all, at some distance be- 




LOOKING TOWARD THERMOPYL.E FROM THE NORTH-WEST 



hind; marched the mass of the army, stretching back 
along the road farther than eye could reach. If the army 
as estimated by Herodotus had been arranged in ranks 
of four and the ranks placed five feet apart; it would 
have extended farther than the distance between New 
York City and Chicago. 

The Persians met with no opposition until they reached The pass of 
Thermopylae; a pass which formed the gateway to all ®"°^py 
northern Greece. If Xerxes could canture this, all Greece 



24 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



The three 
gates 



The Greek 
army very 
small 



Guarding 
the path 
over the 
mountains 



as far south as the Isthmus of Corinth would fall under 
his power. The pass was about four and one-haK miles 
long, extending east and west between a steep ridge of 
hills or mountains and the Malian Gulf. It was really 
a sea-shore road, bordered chiefly by marshes, though in 
places the deep water washed up far enough to allow 
boats to land. At one point it was barely wide enough 
for a wagon to pass. 

There were three very narrow places, or "gates," in 
this pass — the west gate, the middle gate, and the east 
gate. The west gate, or the first that one reaches in 
coming from the north, was very narrow and bordered 
by low hills only, so that it was not easy to defend. But 
at the middle gate there was a mound edged by deep 
water, across which ran an old wall. Behind this wall 
the Greeks took their stand, and here the battle was 
fought. 

The Greek army which was commanded by the Spar- 
tan King Leonidas, was very small. The Athenians had 
put aU their strength into the fleet. They wished to 
defend the pass against a landing of the Persians at that 
point. 

The entire army consisted of about seven thousand 
three hundred men, almost the exact number of Corn- 
wallis's army at Yorktown. Of these, one thousand 
were set to guard the path which ran over the mountains 
from the north and ended in the rear of the pass of Ther- 
mopylae, behind the point where Leonidas and his army 
were stationed. If the Persians could send a body of 
troops over this path it could attack Leonidas and his 
men in the rear. 



THE GREEKS AND WHY WE REMEMBER THEM 25 

The outlook for the Uttle Greek army, face to face with A gloomy 
the Persian host, was gloomy enough. But Leonidas did 
not waver. He was there to defend Thermopylae. 

Xerxes encamped outside the entrance to the pass; ThePer- 
the Greeks were behind the wall at the middle gate. When the^ittie^''^ 
the Persian scouts were sent in advance of the army to dis- ^^^^k army 
cover what was going on, they saw the Spartan warriors 
outside the wall combing their long hair and taking exer- 
cise, as was their custom before fighting in battle. Four 
days Xerxes waited for the Greeks to retreat. On the 
fifth he made an attack. The best of the Persian troops 
dashed against the little Greek army. For two days the 
battle raged. Again and again did the Persians advance 
to the attack, but the stubborn Greeks would not yield 
an inch. The Persian army was held at bay. 

On the evening of the second day, however, a Greek trai- A traitor 
tor offered for a bribe to lead the Persians over the moun- oTpersians^ 
tain path. Under his guidance a body of Persians set ^^^^^^g 
out early in the evening, took the Greek guards at the top 
of the mountain by surprise, and passed on without resist- 
ance. The next morning Xerxes, having waited until this 
body of troops should have come up in the rear of Leonidas, 
ordered the attack. Meanwhile deserters had informed 
Leonidas of the loss of the path in his rear, and he had 
sent away two thousand eight hundred of his men. 

About three thousand six hundred remained, including The heroic 
three hundred Spartans. Leonidas thought, perhaps, that and^his^^ 
there was a desperate chance of saving the pass. At all spa^t^^g 
events he was too brave to retreat. He and the Spartan 
heroes were ready to fight to the death. And they did! 
The battle raged for hours, the Greeks at the last fighting 



26 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



i'3e Per- 
sians capt- 
tiTt and 
bmii Athens 




The Greeks 
win a splen- 
did victory 



The Greeks 
crush the 
Persian 
forces 



A GREEK SHIP 



even with their fists and teeth. Leonidas and the three 

hundred Spartans fought until not a man of them was left. 

When the Greek fleet heard the news of the defeat at 

Thermopyla3 it sailed to 
Salamis; an island near 
Athens. The city of Athens 
was deserted; the people of 
all Attica taking refuge in 
other cities. The Persians 
took possession of Athens 
and burned the city to the 
ground. 

Off Salamis; the Persian 
fleet fought the Greek, Xerxes watching the spectacle 
from a lofty throne built on a hill-side not far away. The 
battle began at seven in the morning and lasted for seven 
or eight hours. The Greeks won a splendid victory. 
Xerxes took his fleet back to Asia and left his best gen« 
eral; Mardonius, to continue the v/ar with Greece on land. 

The following 
year the Persians 
met the Atheni- 
ans, SpartanS; and 
Platseans in the 
battle of Platsea, 
some twenty-five 
miles north-west 
of Athens. Here 

the Greeks won a signal victoiy and crushed the Persian 
forces so that they never rallied. Mardonius was killed^- 
and what became of the sur\dving troops is not known. 




;roup of greek soldiers, drawn from sculptured 
figures in the temple pediment 



THE GREEKS AND WHY WE REMEMBER THEM 27 

Many of them must have been cut off by the peasantry 
in their flight; probably the rest made their way back 
to Asia in small bands. 

Greek courage had saved European Greece from com- Greek cou: 
ing under Persian rule. Without knowing it, the Greeks G^reece^^ 
were fighting for the good of mankind; for it was far 
better that their ideas and ideals should persist rather 
than the ideas and ideals of the Persians. 

THINGS TO REMEMBER 

1. The mountains of Greece cut the land into upland plains and 
valleys in which the people lived in small groups. 2. Many of 
the Greeks, however, became sailors and traded extensively. 
3. Greece, or Hellas, included not only all of the home country^ 
but also, in its widest sense, the larger Greek world outside of 
the home country. 4. Among the great memories which the 
Greeks left behind are the wonderful stories they told, the famous 
cities they built, and the heroic deeds of their great men. 5. When 
the Persians made their first invasion of Greece they w^ere defeated 
at the battle of Marathon. This great victory saved for us the 
wonderful Greece that we know. 6. x\t the battle of Thermopylae, 
which took place during another Persian invasion of Greece, the 
heroic Leonidas and his brave Spartans fought until not a man of 
them was left. 7. In the battles" of Salamis and Platsea Greek 
courage saved European Greece from coming under Persian rule. 

TO THE PUFIL 

1. Explain how it was that the people on the mainland of Greece lived 
in small groups. 

2. What were the two effects of the conditions under which the people 
lived? 

3. If there had been a great river running through the country, what 
difference would it have made in the life of the people? 

4. Explain how it was that many of the Greeks came to be sailors and 
traders. 



28 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



5. What was the difference between Hellas and the home country? 

6. What can we learn from the wonderful stories the Greeks told ? It 
is well worth your while to know what these stories are. Who were 
Hercules, Achilles, and Odysseus, and what did they do? 

7. Name four famous Greek cities and point them out on the map. 

8. Why did Darius invade Greece, and what was the result of this in- 
vasion? In what way did the victory of Marathon save for us the wonder- 
ful Greece that we know? 

9. Compare the size of the two armies at the battle of Thermopylae. 
Imagine yourself with Leonidas at Thermopylae, and tell what you admire 
in him and his three hundred Spartans? 

10. In what way was it better that the Greeii^s should defeat the Persians ? 

11. Locate the following: Athens, Sparta, Marathon, Thermopylae, 
Salamis, and Pktsea. 



CHAPTER III 
THE GREEKS AS BUILDERS AND ARTISTS 



18. Athens at the Time of Its Greatest Splendor. — ■ 

Although the Persians had burned Athens to the ground, 
the Athenians soon rebuilt it and made it more beautiful 
than before. In imagination let us visit the city at the 
time of its greatest splendor, in the age of Pericles 
(461-429 B. C). 

We must remember that Athens, like other city-states 
of Greece, was politically not merely a group of houses 
with a wall running around it. It included also the coun- 
try outside the wall. The Athenians, then, were not only 
the people who dwelt within the city walls, but those also 
who made their homes in the peninsula of Attica. 

In rebuilding the city the Athenians had put up their 
dwellings with little attention to symmetry of streets, 
which were narrow, crooked, and crowded with houses. 
But this was the case in all old cities. The purpose was 



THE GREEKS AS BUILDERS AND ARTISTS 29 

to make the walls as small in circuit as possible and there- 
fore easy to defend against assailants. Those of Athens 
were only about five miles around, enclosing an area very 
small for the number of people who had to dwell within 
the city. 

19. The People of Athens. — Since the population of The weii-to- 
Attica was about two hundred and fifty thousand, these cared iftt/e° 
may have amounted to seVenty-five thousand. The well- ^^^ business 
to-do Athenian cared little for V\rhat we call business. In 
fact he did not work at all, but spent most of his time 
out-of-doors with his fellow-men, talking politics in the 
market-place or attending the public assembly. What 
the public assembly was we shall see later on. 

He rose very early in the morning — about daybreak — a day with 
and after a slight breakfast of wine and bread sallied ^° ^^^ 
forth bareheaded; with his hair carefully dressed and 
his cloak pulled about his body, to meet his friends or 
take part in public affairs. Later in the morning, if he 
was not called to the public assembly, he would take a 
walk or ride out to his coimtry house to look after his 
estate. • At noon he enjoyed a hearty meal, his real break- 
fast, after which he went to the gymnasium either to 
take exercise or to look on and enjoy the sports while 
chatting with his friends. At sunset he returned to his 
home for dinner. 

The slaves, of whom there were at this time not less slavery in 
than one hundred thousand in Attica, did most of the 
physical work of the community. They filled the place 
of the mass of hired servants, artisans, farm-hands, 
miners, and even professional men, like lawyers, physi- 
cians, writers, of our times. They also acted as stewards 



30 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 




THE ACROPOLIS OF ATHENS RESTORED 



and business managers for merchants. All but the poor- 
est families had one or two, and fifty was not a large num- 
ber for a well-to-do Athenian to own. Some wealthy 
citizens counted their slaves by himdreds. 

20. The Houses of the Athenians. — ^The dwelhng- 
houses of the Athenians were small and not at all attrac- 
tive. The front of the house was bare and in many cases 
broken only by a single door. When there were windows, 
they were either in the second stor}^, or, if in the first 
story, were nine or ten feet from the ground. Oil-lamps 
were used for lights and drinking-water was drawn from 
wells and fountains. 

But the Athenians cared only for plain and simple 
homes; for they used their houses mainly as places in 
which to sleep and eat and as a shelter for their families 



32 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 




HERMES, BT PRAXITELES 



The bronze 
statue of 
Athene 



and their household goods. Owing partly to their crav- 
ing curiosity and talkativeness, which made other men's 
company necessary to them, and partly to the seclusion 
of their women, which made "society'' 
as we know it impossible, their inter- 
ests were not in their little-used dwell- 
ings, but in the public squares where 
they met and talked and in such public 
buildings as their temples and theatres. 
They would have thought a costly dw^ell- 
ing a mockery of the gods. 

21. The Acropolis. — If we wish to see 
the real beauty of Athens, therefore, we 
must visit the Acropolis, on which stood both temples 
and statues. This lay nearly in the centre of Athens. 
It was a lofty mass of rock one thousand feet long, irreg- 
ularly broad — ^but never more than five hundred feet — 
and two hundred feet high. Three of its sides w^ere 
steep, and were crowned with walls, for in early times 
it had been selected as a stronghold to be used in case of 
attack. On its western side alone the approach to the 
Acropolis is by an easy ascent. Let us, therefore, take 
the pathway leading up this gentle slope. 

We ascend a broad marble stairway and, passing 
through a magnificent portal, we find ourselves at the 
summit of the plateau in the presence of an immense 
bronze statue more than fifty feet high, the work of a 
sculptor named Phidias. This is Athene, the protect- 
ing goddess of the Athenians, the goddess for whom 
the city was named. She stands in full armor, with 
outstretched spear and shield. The tip cf the spear 



THE GREEKS AS BUILDERS AND ARTISTS 33 

and the crest of the helmet can be seen many miles 
away at sea. 

22. The Parthenon. — Near by is Athene's temple, a marvel of 
the Parthenon, the noblest building in all Greece. Its 
calm grandeur and stately beauty charmed every one 



artistic skill 




MODEL OF THE PARTHENON RESTORED, AT THE METROPOLITAN MUSEUM, 
NEW YORK CITY (NOTE SIZE OF SOLDIER BY THE COLUMN) 

who saw it, and it was a marvel of artistic skill. It was 
built of white marble and was surrounded on all sides by 
white marble pillars- which supported the sloping roof. 

Besides its vestibules, it had two large chambers, one Thegor- 
for the statue of Athene, and one for the sacred treasures, of Athene*"* 
In the first room stood the statue of the goddess, made 
entirely of ivory and gold. This gorgeous work of art, the 
creation of Phidias, was forty-seven feet high. The right 
hand held a statue of a winged Victory, six feet high, and 
the left one rested on a shield. Her robes, reaching to 
her feet, were covered with pure gold, and her shield 
and helmet sparkled with almost priceless jewels. In the 



34 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 




STATUE OF ATHENE 
WHICH STOOD IN 
THE PARTHENON 



second of the two rooms the state treasures 
were kept and guarded. 

23. Greek Statues and Temples. — The 
Parthenon was not the only temple upon the 
AcropohS; all of which were richly adorned 
with paintings and sculptures, nor were the 
two statues of Athene the only statues. The 
Greeks delighted to have their sculptors carve 
in marble their gods and goddesses. They 
behoved that spending money upon beautiful 
statues and temples, like those which graced 
the Acropolis, was an act of piety, and they 
always applauded the men who used their 
wealth in this way. They feasted upon such 
beautiful works of art, many of which still 
exist for us to enjoy to-day. Among the most 

familiar statues known to us are the Venus found on 

the island of Melos; the Hermes, by Praxiteles; and the 

Discus Thrower, by Myron. 

24. How Athens Secured Money to Adorn the Acrop- 
olis. — You might well ask how Athens came to be wealthy 

enough to adorn the Acropolis with so many beautiful 

works of art. A few words will explain. 

After the defeat of the Persians the 

Greeks feared that the enemy would 

again return, a fear felt especially by 

the Greek cities of Ionia and of the 

^gean islandSo These cities, therefore, 

under the leadership of Athens, formed 

a league, each agreeing to furnish 

yearly either war-ships or money for 




VENUS OF MELOS 



THE GREEKS AS BUILDERS AND ARTISTS 35 

a common fund to build a navy. At first this money was 
kept in a temple at Delos, but later it was transferred to 
the Parthenon. It amounted to about six hundred thou- 
sand dollars a year, a sum which would be worth many 
times as much now. Some of this money was used to 
supplement treasury funds in beautifying Athens and 
the Acropolis, although the cities of the league had not 
intended it for any such purpose. 

25. Greek Gods and Goddesses. — Many of the works Mount 
of art naturally took the form of statues to the gods, for the home 
the gods were familiar beings in the every-day life of the gods^and^^' 
Greeks. Athene, the patron deity of Athens, was one of goddesses 
the goddesses that the Greeks worshipped. They 
believed that there were many other gods and 
goddesses who were in control of the affairs of 
men. The chief of these had their home on 
Mount Olympus, whose summit, as the people 
gazed at it from below, was always veiled in 
mist and clouds. Here dwelt Zeus, the king of ^ei-s 

the gods and ruler of gods and men; Hera, his 
wife and sister, queen of heaven; Apollo, the sun-god; 
Aphrodite, the goddess of love; and Hermes, the mes- 
senger of the gods. 

Besides these, according to the Greek belief, there were Greek gods 
numerous other gods and spirits of woods and fields and human 
streams. All these, as the Greeks beheved, were much ^^^°^^ 
like human beings in looks and actions, but they were all 
beautiful, and were immortal, and did things on a larger 
scale than human beings could do. 

26. The Theatre. — ^The Greeks, then, had what we The Greek 
call artistic feeling; that is, they had a keen sense of beauty 




36 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



beauty. They liked beautiful statues of their gods and 
lieroes, such as were carved by their sculptors, and beau- 
tiful buildings, such as were erected by their architects. 
But they also hked fine hterature, such as was written by 
their poets. They were especially fond of plays. 




GREEK THEATRE AT EPIDAURUS 



The Greek 
theatre 



In fact; if we wish to see all the free inhabitants of the 
city at one . look, we must go to their great theatre. 
Here, during the two festivals given each year in honor 
of Dionysus, the god of wine, sometimes thirty thousand 
people were present. Do not imagine, however, that 
this theatre was like ours. It was far from it. It was 
built on the slope of the Acropolis and was without shelter 
from rain or sun. When in use it was crowded for a 
period of several days from dawn until dark. Play after 
play was put on in competition for a prize. There was 
no pause, not even for meals, though the people, who 



THE GREEKS AS BUILDERS AND ARTISTS 37 

had eaten a hearty breakfast before leaving their 
homes, lunched from time to time during portions of 
the play. 

The picture is an attractive one. The great theatre, a Greek 
in form a half-circle, with graded rows of seats rising one the tiieatoe 
above the other, is thronged with people dressed in red, 
white, brown, yellow, and other bright colors, reflecting 
the rays of the bright sun. The rich sit upon carpets 
and cushions which they have brought with them; but 
the great mass sit upon the seats without even rests for 
their backs. The people are able critics. Now they are 
hushed as they witness a thrilling scene; now they clap 
their hands and shout; and now they hiss and groan and 
kick their heels against the seats. At times they may 
even throw missiles at the actors if the play does not . 
please them. 

At the foot of the amphitheatre is a large flat space The choms 
almost in the shape of a circle. Here a group of people 
are dancing and singing. They are the chorus who 
chanted the emotions aroused by the action of the 
play, and beyond them, on a narrow stage a few feet 
high, are the actors, v/ho wear masks. There is little 
scenery. 

To the Greeks the theatre was not simply a place of The 
amusement as with us. It started as a rehgious festival, orTek^Me^ 
and later came to have a great influence over their lives. 
It was to them as magazine, newspaper, novel, and teacher 
combined. The plays were of a high order. Some of 
the greatest dramas of all times were produced on the 
Athenian stage, plaj^s which we read and study to-day 
because of their beauty and surpassing literaiy cjuality, ^ 



38 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



THINGS TO REMEMBER 

1. Athens, like other city-states of Greece, included also the 
country outside the wall. 2. The Parthenon was the noblest 
building in all Greece. 3. The Greeks had a keen sense of beauty. 
They liked beautiful statues of their gods and heroes, such as were 
carved by their sculptors, and beautiful buildings, such as were 
erected by their architects. All their temples were richly adorned 
with paintings and sculptures. 

TO THE PUPIL 

1. Imagine yourself to be an Athenian and tell how you spent some 
day. 

2. Taking an imaginary trip in Athens, describe the streets and the 
houses, and then ascend the Acropolis and tell what you see there. 

3. What part did slavery play in the life of Athens? 

4. Who was Athene? Get as definite an idea as you can of her statue 
in the Parthenon. 

5. Name three of the most familiar Greek statues known to us. 

6. What and where was the home of the chief Greek gods and goddesses? 

7. In imagination visit a Greek theatre and tell what you see there. 
What large part did the theatre play in the life of the Greeks ? 

8. Locate on your map every country that is mentioned ; also every city. 



CHAPTER IV 
GREEK BOYS AND GREEK MEN 

The tram- 27. The Training of the Athenian Boy. — As the Greeks 

m^of the believed that a beautiful body indicated a beautiful soul, 
they made bodily exercise an important part of a boy's 
training. In Athens gymnastics were taught at the wrest- 
ling grounds, which were partly shaded fields on the out- 
skirts of the city. Here, with naked bodies well oiled, 
the boys practised wresthng, jumping, boxing, running, 



GREEK BOYS AND GREEK MEN 39 

and throwing the discus and spear. When the work was 
over they scraped off the oil and plunged into fresh water 
for a bath. As a result of their training in sports the 
boys had strong, manly, graceful bodies. 

At sunrise every morning, in all kinds of weather, the The school 
Athenian boys trooped to school. The school buildings ^"^^"^e& 
were not large and pleasant like ours. They were ill-fur- 
nished and without desks. Sometimes the school was held 
in the open air, and then there were not even benches. 

At school the boys were taught music and grammar. Music and 
Music included singing and playing on musical instru- 
ments, though the main object was an acquaintance with 
the songs of the poets. In the study of grammar, largely 
through the use of Homer and other Greek poets, the boy 
was not only to learn how to use his mother tongue, but 
also to gain knowledge of life, of the gods and his relations 
to them, and also of the kind of service he should render 
his state. For the Athenian always kept in mind the 
preparation of the boy for the part he was later to play 
as one of the rulers of the Athenian state. 

As for the girls, they received no training even in read- The train- 
ing or writing, except what their mothers and nurses were ^'^ ° ^^ 
able and willing to give them. To the Greeks this seemed 
quite enough, for Greek women were expected to spend 
nearly all their time within their homes attending to the 
duties of their households. The girls were therefore 
taught to cook, spin, weave, and do things pertaining to 
the care of the home and to the children in the home. 

28. The Training of the Spartan Boy. — ^The life of a The train- 
boy in Sparta was one that you would think rather severe, body 
but very likely he got used to it and enjoyed his games and 



40 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 




The life of 
the boys 
rough and 
hard 



Every boy 
trained for 
war 



SPARTAN WARRIORS 



in the gymnasium wi 



sports. At seven years of age he 
was taken from his home for good 
and sent to a school-master, who 
was a state official having other 
boys under his care. All the boy's 
time was occupied in school work, 
in wliich the training of the body 
received most emphasis. Exercise 
:s constant and thorough, and in- 
cluded running, wrestling, throwing the spear, riding, and 
a rough game which resembled foot-ball. 

The conditions of the life of the boys were rough and 
hard. Their beds were of reeds and rushes which they 
collected from the river, where they bathed every day, 
no matter what the weather. Their clothes w^ere veiy 
light, the same in winter as in summer. They wore no 
shoes nor hats. For much of their food they v/ere obliged 
to forage or to obtain it by stealth. To be sure, a boy 
caught in the act of stealing was punished, but because 
he was clumsy and not because he had done wrong. 

iVt twenty, boys entered military 
service. Indeed, the great aim of the 
Spartans was to make of every boy a 
hardy warrior. They cared yery little 
fcr anything but the al3ility to make 
and keep Sparta a strong city. The 
best Spartan, from their point of view, 
was the man who was able to endure 
hardships, and who was strong in cour- 
age and skilful in battle. The famous 
farewell of the Spartan mother, ^^Come 




DISCUS THROWER, BT MTEON 



GREEK BOYS AND GREEK MEN 



41 




SCENE OX THE KOAD TO OLYJIPIA 



home with your shield or 
oil it/' shows that the 
women worked for the 
same end. The man was 
expected without a mo- 
ment's hesitation to sac- 
rifice property, wife/chil- 
dren, or hfe itself for the 
welfare of Sparta. He 
who had shown himself 
a coward was shunned and scorned by all. • The life of 
the individual was held as nothing compared to the good 
of the state. 

29. The Olympic Games. — ^The Greeks held many fes- 
tivals in honor of their godS; the most famous of which 

were the Olympic games. 
These were held once in 
every four years at Olympia 
in Elis. At first they lasted 
but one day, but later the 
time was extended to five 
days. Wliile the games were 
going on, wars betw^een Greek 
states ceased so that the 
roads were safe for travellers, 
who came from all over 
Greece and from the Greek 
colonies. Those from a dis- 
tance brought slaves, who 
carried such needful things 
as tents, bedding, clothing, 




END OF A FOOT-RACE — THE VICTOR LEAPING 
OVEB HIS FALLEN RIVAi 



42 



AlviERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



The games 



The rewards 
of the victor 



and food; for there were no hotels in those days. Con- 
testants from all the Greek states took part. They 
were required to train for the games for ten months, and 
for the thirty days just before the games in the gymna- 
sium at Elis. 

The games began at daybreak and lasted until after 
dark. The earliest competition was the short distance 

foot-race. Longer foot-races 
were added later, then 
wrestling, boxing, and the 
pcntachlon, a contest 
made up of five events, viz., 
running, jumping, wrestling, 
throwing the discus, and 
thro v/ing the javelin. A later 
contest still, but one which 
came to be the most impor- 
tant of all, was the race of 
chariots with four horses. 

This prize for all winner 
was a crown of wild olive, 
v/hich was the greatest object 
cf ambition for eveiy^ Greek 
youth. You may think tliis of Httle value. But there 
was also a banquet given in honor of the victor. Poets 
were hired to sound his praises and men cf his own city 
bore him home in triumph. Sometimes, when he reached 
his home, part of the city w^alls were taken down in order 
that he might not have to travel in the common road. A 
statue also was often erected for him, and he was highly 
honored by his fellow-citizens all the rest of his life. 




CROWNING AN OLYMPIC VICTOR 



GREEK BOYS AND GREEK MEN 43 

30. The Greek Assembly in the Open Air. — ^At the age The Athe- 
of eighteen the Athenian boy was required to take an bSSmesa 
oath never to disgrace his holy arms; never to forsake his ^**^^®° 
comrade in the ranks, but to fight for the holy temples 

and the common welfare, either alone or with others; to 
leave his coimtry better than he had found it; to obey 
the laws; and to held in honor the religion of his coun- 
tiy. When he took the oath he received the warrior's 
shield and spear. He was made a full citizen at twenty, 
when he became a member of the public assembly. 

The oath shows that Athens gave to every citizen a Every free 
share in the common life of the city and expected him to member of 
take his part in the work of the state. As a member of ^gj^^f^ 
the public assembly he helped to make the laws and to 
decide what should be done for Athens. In other words, 
he was a member of the Athenian democracy, in which 
the citizens were both the rulers and the ruled. This 
great truth, that every free citizen should have a part in 
making the laws and in ruling the state, the Greeks were 
the first to teach the world. 

The assembly was held in the open air, and early in the The pubUc 
Forenoon, on a hill just outside the city. Every man who ^^^®™ ^ 
attended in the time of Pericles was paid a small fee, and 
any member of the assembly, whether rich or poor, had 
the right to address the meeting. The speakers wore 
crowns of myrtle and stood on a stone platform ten or 
eleven feet high, reached by a flight of steps. 

31. Pericles the Orator and Statesman. — Let us im- 
agine ourselves at one of these meetings on a day when 
Pericles is to speak. There are thousands in the vast 
throng, for all are eager to hear the gifted orator. The 



44 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



Pericles 
the orator 




Pericles 
the states- 
man 



place of assembly is in the shape of a half-circle and covers 
an area of two and one-half acres. Some of the men sit on 
stools brought from their homes and others find places 
upon the bare earth. 

When Pericles ascends the stone platform we note his 
serious face and his noble bearing. At once we fall under 
the spell of his presence. It is clear that 
he loves Athens and feels a deep interest 
in the welfare of the people. He speaks 
briefly; but Iris words carry weight; and 
he con\T[nces his hearers that they should 
vote for the measure he urges upon them. 
Pericles was a man of wealth; accom- 
plished; broad-minded; and devoted to the 
interests of the people. He tried to teach 
them that each man's happiness depended 
on the welfare of the whole body politic. 
As a far-seeing statesman, he believed that all citizens 
should share in the rule of the city, and that they should 
be trained for that duty. He therefore encouraged edu- 
cation. As a lover of art; he sought to make Athens 
beautiful; and it was largely through his influence that 
the Acropolis was adorned with statues and with the 
Parthenon; the most beautiful temple in Greece and in 
the ancient world. 

32. Socrates the Philosopher and Teacher. — ^Another 
well-known Athenian was SocrateS; who was both a phi- 
losopher and teacher. As a philosopher — a word which 
means a lover of wisdom — ^he was a sincere seeker after 
truth. As a teacher he wished to help others toward 
right living. 



GREEK BOYS AND GREEK MEN 45 

There were many philosophers in Greece who spent Greek 
their time teaching in pubHc places for money. They p^^^^^^p^^'s 
were, surrounded by rich men and youths just entering 
upon their duties as citizens. Their teachings were in- 
tended to train for cleverness and power in debate. 

Socrates stood quite apart from this group. He was a Socrates 
m.an of ungainly figure, with a snub nose, thick lips, ^®°^^ 
and bulging eyes. He dressed shabbily and wore no 
shoes. Although he was poor, he refused to take pay 
for his teaching. He even gave up his work as a 
sculptor and devoted all his time to teaching men to seek 
after the truth and learn what was best for their welfare 
and happiness. 

He talked with all who cared to listen to him, whether Socrates 
they were rich or poor. Day after day he could be seen 
in the market-place, in the gymnasium, or in the streets, 
teaching a crowd of delighted, eager listeners, men and 
boys alike. He asked them questions to make them think 
about the deep problems of life. ^'Know thyself'^ was 
his constant theme. 

But he talked so plainly about men's faults that he made Socrates 
many enemies, who at last decided that they would try Sfemies 
to put him out of the way. They therefore brought two' 
charges against him. One was that he was false to the 
gods, and the other that he was giving very harmful 
advice to young men. He was tried before a jur}^ of 501 
men. At the end of the trial 220 of the jury voted in 
favor of Socrates and 281 against him. 

It was decided that he must die by drinking poison, The death 
the universal way then in Greece of inflicting the death ^ °^^^ ^ 
penalty. So he was sent to prison, where he remained 



46 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



about a month until his death. During that 
time his friends visited him daily and al- 
ways found him cheerful. On the day of 
his death he was surrounded by a group of 
sorrowing friends from the hour when the 
prison doors were opened until evening. 
Then Socrates drank the hemlock. Up to 
the last moment of his life he talked bravely 
about the meaning of life and the future of 
the human soul. Another famous Greek 
philosopher was Plato. He was the disciple of Socrates 
and the teacher of Aristotle who, as we are soon to 
learn, was the teacher of Alexander the Great. 




THINGS TO REMEMBER 

1. To the Greeks a beautiful body indicated a beautiful soul. 
2. The aim of the Spartans was to make of every boy a hardy 
warrior. 3. The Greeks were the first to teach the world that 
every free citizen should have a part in making the laws and in 
ruling the state. 4. Pericles was a great orator and statesman. 
5. Socrates was a great philosopher and teacher. 



TO THE PUPIL 

1. Why did the Greeks pay so much attention to the training of the 
"body ? Tell all you can about the school life of the Athenian boy and of 
the Spartan boy. 

2. What were the Olympic games, and what were the rewards of the 
victor ? 

3. What is meant by Athenian democracy ? What great truth were the 
Greeks the first to teach the world ? 

4. What do you admire in Pericles ? What did he do for Athens ? 

5. What kind of man was Socrates ? Row did he look ? What did he 
teach ? 



MEN WHO CARRIED GREEK WAYS TO OTHER LANDS 47 



CHAPTER V 

MEN WHO CARRIED GREEK WAYS OF 
LIVING TO OTHER LANDS 

33. Spread of Greek Knowledge and Ways of Living. — 
We have briefly recalled a few of the greatest memories 
of the Greeks — their myths and stories, their famous 
cities that still survive, and their glorious victories over 
the Persian hosts. In imagination we have visited Athens, 
and admired the work of her builders, her artists, and her 
dramatists, and learned something of her great orators 
and statesmen, and of her philosophers and teachers. 

All these men did great things for their city-states and Sailors, 
for their country. But the influence of Greek thought colonists 
and character was not confined to the small country 
which we know by that name on our maps, nor to the men 
who lived within its boundaries; for the knowledge and 
ways of living which the Greeks learned spread abroad 
to other lands. The men who brought about the spread 
of learning were the sailors, traders, and colonists, not 
with such a purpose in mind, but just in the ordinary 
e very-day work of their lives. 

We have already seen that the many excellent harbors Greek 
on the eastern coast of Greece and in the islands dotting 
the iEgean Sea all the way from Greece to Asia Minor 
encouraged the Greeks to engage in trade with other lands. 
They built many ships and traded extensively. They 
went to the shores of the Black Sea for grain, which was 
abundant there, as it is yet. Here they planted colonies, 
and also as we have seen in other parts of Asia Minor, in 



48 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



the islands of the ^gean Sea, and around the shores of 
the Mediterranean. How widespread these colonies were 
a brief list will show you. Smyrna in Asia Minor, Cyrene 
in Africa, Sybaris, Croton, Tarentum in Italy, Syracuse 
in Sicily, and Massilia (Marseilles) in France were a few 
of them. 

34. The Lack of Union among the Greek States. — Of 
the men who in a later period did much to spread the Greek 
ways of living, none is to be compared with Alexander 
the Great. The story of his career is one of the most 
wonderful in history, and for its beginning we must re- 
turn to Athens and note the condition of affairs in Greece 
about the time when Pericles died (429 B. C.). 

All along we have noticed the lack of union among the 
Greek states. It was the fatal weakness of the Greek 
people. The Athenian loved Athens, the Spartan loved 
Sparta. Each was willing, if need be, to give up his life 
for his own city. But there his patriotism ended. He 
cared almost nothing for any part of Greece outside of the 
narrow boundaries of his native state, and worse than that, 
the jealousies between the various city-states kept them 
apart. They never united except for brief periods, and 
then in the face of great common dangers like the Persian 
invasions. 

Even when a group of cities did unite, it was, as a rule, 
under the leadership of the one which was strong enough 
to overshadow all the rest. Athens, Sparta, and Thebes 
in turn tried to make itself supreme, but in each case the 
attempt failed. For about a century after the death of 
Pericles the Greek cities were either fighting or preparing 
to fight each other. At last Philip, King of Macedonia, 



MEN WHO CARRIED GREEK WAYS TO OTHER LANDS 49 

in a great battle (the battle of Chseronea, 338 B. C.) con- 
quered all the Greek cities and made himself master and 
leader of Greece. 

The Macedonians as a people were strong, rude men The Mace- 
of peasant race, who hved in a region lying north of ^^°^^^ 
Thessaly and cut off from it by lofty mountains. They 
were mountain shepherds, having a keen relish for hunt- 
ing and for war. The man who had not killed a wild 
boar could not sit at the banquet with other men. Such 
people knew little and cared little for the refinements of 
life. To a great degree without cities and even without 
fixed places of abode, and eating and drinking from wooden 
platters and cups, they did not mind toil and hardship. 
These sturdy men, with King Philip as leader, proved re- 
sistless in battle, and the united armies of Greece went 
down before them. 

35. Alexander the Great. — Two years after the bat- 
tle of Chseronea Philip died and his son Alexander as- 
cended the throne. He was then only twenty years old, 
but had already showed signs of becoming a masterful 
leader of men. He was of average height, of a fair 
complexion and ruddy face, with the body of a trained 
athlete. 

From his early boyhood he had been interested in Alexander 
books, and studied under Greek tutors. At thirteen he ^^^^^^ 
was put under the instruction of Aristotle, one of the 
world's greatest philosophers, and through him, no doubt, 
acquired his strong love of Homer and the other Greek 
poets. It is said that he was so familiar with the ''Iliad'' 
that he could repeat much, if not all, of it from memory, 
and that during his campaigns he always had a copy with 



50 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



Alexander 
and the 
horse 




Alexander's 
ambition 



He crosses 

the 

Hellespont 



Mm. Certain it is that during his entire career he made 
Achilles, its leading character, his hero and example. 

A characteristic story is told that shows how clever and 
intelligent the boy was. A beautiful but untamed horse 
was brought to his father's court. It was so hard to bring 

under control that it was 
about to be sent away when 
Alexander begged that he 
might try his hand at taming 
it. Having noticed that the 
animal was afraid of its shad- 
ow, he turned its face toward 
the sun. Then, keeping hold 
of the reins, he let it go forward 
a little before curbing it gently 
and jumping on its back. Soon 
he was galloping over the 
course as easily as if he had been master of the horse for 
yeai-s. This is suggestive not only of his bodily skill, but 
also of his skill in handling animals. 

36. Alexander in Persia and the East. — Soon after 
Alexander became king, the Greek cities, counting upon his 
youth and lack of experience, tried to regain their liberty 
and free themselves from Macedonian supremacy. But 
he quickly put down the uprising and then at once turned 
his attention to the East. For his ambition was to con- 
quer Persia and all of the East and form there a great 
empire of which he should be the supreme head. 

With an army of thirty thousand infantry and four 
thousand five hundred cavalry he crossed the Helles- 
pont. As he approached the shore he hurled his spear 



ALEXANDER THE GREAT 



MEN WHO CARRIED GREEK WAYS TO OTHER LANDS 51 

into the earth; and in full armor leaped upon the land. 
In such manner he chose to show how he would conquer 
Asia and become its master. 

Before taking up his march he visited the scenes of He visits 
the Trojan War, and there stood by the tomb of Achilles, '^^^^ 
whom he so much admired. At Ilium (Troy) he visited 
the column set up in memory of Achilles, and worshipped 
at the temple dedicated to Athene. Later he built a new 
city on the site of Troy. 

In the many battles that he fought in his career of His troops 
conquest he was always foremost in a dash upon the ^ ™"^^ "^ 
enemy and always fearless in the presence of danger. 
This was one of many reasons why his troops admired 
him. They also loved him because he took a deep per- 
sonal interest in their welfare. For he often went to 
see those who were sick and tried to comfort them by 
kindness and sympathy. 

We cannot follow closely his career of conquest through His won- 
Asia, which lasted about ten years. We can only say that ^ " career 
wherever he went he was successful. He. not only made 
himself master of the Persian Empire, but even extended 
his conquest into India. lie hoped to become the ruler 
of the world. In the midct of a wonderful career, how- 
ever, he fell sick and died at the age of thirty-two. 

37. Alexander Carries Greek Ideas into the Persian Alexander 
World. — ^Alexander was more than a warrior and con- ofdties*^ 
queror. He also carried Greek ideas into the Persian 
world. This he did partly by the cities he founded. 
Through his work the arts of Greece were carried to the 
many parts of the East where, we are told, he founded 
more than seventy cities. He showed great ability in 



b'J, 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



How these 
cities grew 



Centre of 

intellectual 

life 



selecting their sites, many of which became great trade 
centres and played a largo part in the commerce of the 
world. 

It is interesting to know how these cities grew from small 
beginnings to be of great importance. At first we find 

in each merely a group of 
tired-out soldiers from Alex- 
ander's army. But, as the city 
growS; Greek traders, mer- 
chants, and workmen are at- 
tracted to it. These were 
followed by Greek philoso- 
phers and men of science. 
Then in time each new city 
became a centre of Greek life 
and thought and its influence 
spread into the surrounding 
country. 

38. The City cf Alexan- 
dria. — ^The most important 
of all these cities was Alexandria, which was founded in 
Egypt at the mouth of the Nile. Alexander saw the pos- 
sibilities of the site of the village already there, and at once 
had the harbor built so that it would be of practical use. 
He laid out two principal streets crossing each other at 
right angles, with less important ones parallel to them, 
and marked sites for both Greek and Egyptian temples. 
The two principal thoroughfares were adorned with col- 
onnades for footways. 

Alexandria became one of the leading commercial cities 
of the ancient world. Caravans from the Persian Gulf 




ALEXANDER IN BATTLE. FROM THE 
SARCOPHAGUS OF THE SATRAPS 
AT CONSTANTINOPLE 



MEN WHO CARRIED GREEK WAYS TO OTHER LANDS 53 

and ships on the Red Sea brought the wonderful products 
of India and China. Spices from Arabia, gold and ivory 
from Africa; amber from the Baltic, copper from Cyprus, 
and many more things from the ports of the Mediterra- 
nean came here to be exchanged. It was the great market 
where the wealth of Europe changed hands with that of 
Asia. Yet it was not for its commerce that Alexandria 
was most noted. It was more famous as a centre of 
intellectual life, due in a large measure to the wisdom of 
the Egyptian rulers. 

If we had visited the city a century after the death of its exten- 
Alexander, that is, at the time of the Ptolemies (the dy- seum and 
nasty founded by Alexander's general, Ptolemy, after the jltrSy^* 
great conqueror's death), we should have been most in- 
terested in its extensive museum, or imiversity, as we 
should call it to-day. This was a collection of buildings 
which received its name because the work to be done 
there was sacred to the Muses. There were art galleries, 
lecture-rooms, and dining-halls; also beautiful gardens 
with shady walks, statues, and fountains. Here poets 
and scholars walked and talked and sang. Its great 
library of about five hundred thousand volumes or man- 
uscripts had been selected with great care in various 
countries. There was none other like it in the world. 

On our visit we should have found, worldng in this Scholars in 
museum, hundreds of scholars pursuing their studies with ® ^^ 
all the aid that wealth could supply; for the Ptolemies 
were eager to encourage the search for truth of all kinds. 
The scholars were even fed and lodged by the King. 

One of them (Eratosthenes) was a student of geog- Ptolemy and 
raphy. Like modern geographers, he wrote and talked °^^ "^ 



54 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 

about the roundness of the earth and tried to measure its 
size on the equator. A student of his work; named 
Ptolemy, some centuries later became the most famous 
of map-makers, and was very helpful to Columbus when 
he. was planning for his first voyage across the Atlantic. 
In such ways students working quietly in the splendid 
library of Alexandria were fiading out things of great 
value to the world. Here and elsewhere Greek scholars 
were doing much to advance the cause of science. The 
work of the Greeks in medicine, botany, mathematics, 
astronomy, and other sciences proved most helpful to 
men of science in later times. 

39. The Spread of Greek Ideas and Ways of Living. — • 
Historians differ as to what Alexander's purpose may have 
been in foimding these Greek cities of which Alexandria 
was the chief. But whatever his purpose, we know that 
he prepared the way for the spread of Greek ideas and 
ways of living. For wherever the Greeks went as mer- 
chants, traders, and colonists, they carried not only 
Greek art and culture, but Greek life. Temples, theatres, 
and gymnasiums were built, all repeating the life of the 
home cities. These buildings, adorned with graceful col- 
umns and carvings, and decorated with beautiful statues, 
paintings, and vases, all wrought with exquisite workman- 
ship, became the carriers of Greek civilization to many 
peoples of many lands. 

THINGS TO REMEMBER 

1. Greek sailors, traders, and colonists brought about the spread 
of Greek knowledge and ways of living. 2. The lack of union was 
a fatal weakness among the Greeks. 3. Alexander the Great made 



^lEN WHO CARRIED GREEK WAYS TO OTHER LANDS 55 

himself master of the Persian Empire and extended his conquest 
into India. He also carried Greek ideas into the Persian world. 
4. He founded many cities, the greatest of which was Alexandria 
in Egypt. 

TO THE PUPIL 

1. Point out on your map as many Greek colonies as you can. 

2. In what way did a lack of union prove a fatal weakness among the 
Greeks ? 

3.. Tell what you can about the boyhood of Alexander the Great. 

4. What was his ambition after he came to be king ? What did he 
accomplish as a warrior and conqueror ? 

5. Why was it an advantage to the world that he should found many 
cities ? Locate the most important of these and tell all you can about it. 

6. Are you locating on your map all the countries and cities mentioned 
in the text ? 



THE ROMANS AND WHAT WE HAVE 
LEARNED FROM THEM 

CHAPTER VI 
HOW THE ROMANS BEGAN 

40. The Conquering Romans. — ^While Alexander- was 
conquering the East and extending Greek life and learning 
in Asia, another people to the west of Greece, of whom 
Alexander probably knew little, was rising into power. 
These people were the Romans, and they dwelt in Italy. 
At this time they had just mastered their nearest neigh- 
bors and were cariying their conquests to more distant 
tribes. Before completing their work in the w^orld, they 
were to become masters not only of Italy, but of all the 
countries on the Mediterranean and of western Europe. 
Let us look at them and their country more closely. 

41. Geographical Conditions in Italy. — Italy, hke 
Greece, is a peninsula, although it is much larger than 
Greece. It stretches far down from the Alps into the 
Mediterranean for a distance of seven hundred miles. 
Lying between Greece, Spain, Gaul, and Egypt, in the 
centre of the Mediterranean, ancient Italy was well 
situated for world trade. But, as its eastern coast was 
steep and without good harbors, this trade had to de- 
velop on its southern and western shores, where the har- 
bors were good and more frequent. 

56 



HOW THE ROMANS BEGAN 57 

Although mountainous, the surface was quite different The moun- 
from that of Greece, for the mountains did not divide it jt^y °^ 
into many small sections. The Apennines, running through 
the centre of the peninsula, formed a mountain belt with 
a strip of coast-land on either side, that on the west being 
much wider and more fertile than the one on the east. 
Easy mountain passes, however, connected the two coasts 
and served, in the early days of Roman history, to unite 
the various tribes rather than to separate them. 

The mountains to the north of Italy, the Alps, also con- The Alps 
tained many passes, but these did not serve so good a pur- 
pose. For as the moimtains were less steep on the north- 
ern slope than on the southern, hostile tribes could the 
more easily swoop down over them, bringing terror and 
destruction to the dwellers of the plains. 

The rivers of Italy were mostly short. Only two of Thesitua- 
them were good for trade. These were the Po and the Rome 
Tiber. It was on the banks of the Tiber, fifteen miles 
from its mouth and midway between the sea and the 
mountains, that Rome was situated. Her position, in the 
heart of Italy, helped her to make herself the commercial 
centre of the peninsula, and at the same time served to 
divide her enemies so that she could subdue them one by 
one. She was also near enough to the sea for commerce 
with the outside world, and yet far enough from it to be 
safe from the pirates of early times. 

42. The Beginnings of Rome. — The early Romans had A viUage 
other enemies than pirates to deal with, and these were ° ^^ 
the neighboring tribes. They had therefore selected, as 
a site for their village, one of a group of seven hills and 
upon it had built a stronghold. Later on they united 



58 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



Romulus 
and Remus 



with another small tribe living to the north on a second 
of the seven hills, and formed a city-state. This they 
enclosed by a wall. Two small tribes living within a 
village of mud huts, protected by two hills and a single 
wall — such was the second stage in the growth of the city 
which was soon to cover the seven hills and in time make 
herself the mistress of the world. 

43. The Story of Romulus and Remus. — Who thc 
Romans were, where they came from, or when they settled 
in Italy we do not know. But the stoiy of Romulus and 
Remus tells what the early Romans believed. It is one 
of the many legends that have come down to us. These 
legends are not history, but at the same time they may 
have been founded on actual occurrences in some in- 
stances. 

According to the legend, the Roman people sprung 
from one of the heroes of Troy, ^Eneas, who wandered to 
Italy and married the daughter of the King of Latium 
(the central province of Italy, of which Rome afterward 
became the head) . One of his descendants was the mother 
of Romulus and Remus, twin boys, whose father was Mars, 
the god of war. Soon after they w^ere born the wicked 
Eng, their uncle, had them thrown into the Tiber. The 
basket in which they were set adrift was caught by the 
roots of a fig tree, a wolf suckled them, and a shepherd^ 
finding them, brought them up as his own children. 

When Romulus became a man he slew the wicked King, 
and the two brothers founded a city (753 B. C.) on the 
banks of the Tiber near the place where they were rescued. 
In a quarrel, Romulus killed his brother Remus and called 
the city they had built after himself, Roma. Here he 



HOW THE ROMANS BEGAN 59 

reigned alone for many years, made laws for the people, 
and gave them a religion. During a thunderstorm he 
was carried away to the skies, and thereafter he was 
worshipped as a god. 

A A The Story of Horatius at the Bridge.— Romulus The last 

44* AAAc yj*,\jxj .IT Roman King 

was followed, so legend tells us, by other kmgs, mcludmg 
some of Etruscan blood, the Etruscans being a tribe to 
the north of Rome. But in time the Romans drove the 
last of these rulers, called Tarquin the Proud, out of the 
city and shut the gates against him. 

According to the stoiy which the Romans proudly told, Th^^Ro-.^^^ 
Tarquin, desiring to regain his power, sought help from across the 
certain Etruscan cities. With a large force he marched ^"^^e 
against Rome and captured the fortified hill on the oppo- 
site bank of the Tiber. The Romans, driven from the 
hill, retreated across a narrow wooden bridge to the city. 
It was plain that if this bridge was not destroyed the 
enemy would soon be in Rome itself. 

Horatius, a brave warrior, therefore called to the citi- Thr^e^brave 
zens to cut down the bridge while he and two companions 
turned at its entrance and faced the advancing army. 
These three brave warriors, standing side by side, with 
their strong shields held the enemy at bay, while other 
Romans furiously hacked away at the wooden timbers of 
the bridge. When at last it began to give way, Horatius 
begged his companions, both of whom were wounded, to 
save themselves by retreating. 

He remained alone to guard the bridge— one man against Homte ^^ 
an army. Amazed at his bravery, the enemy drew back fn,m^^ 
for a moment and then rushed upon him with redoubled ^^P 
fury. But they were too late to save the bridge. With a 



60 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



crash the last supports broke and it was swept away by 
the swiftly flowing river. Clothed as he was in heavy 
armor, lioratius plunged into the muddy water and, amid 
a shower of arrows from the enemy, swam unharmed to 
the opposite .shore, where his friends greeted him with 
shouts of joy. 

45. The Bitter Struggle between the Patricians and 
the Plebeians. — ^Although the Romans were rid of the 
TarquinS; they did not escape serious troubles in govern- 
ing themselves. By the time they had driven away their 
last King (509 B. C.) they had within their walls several 
tribes which they had brought in, one after another, to 
join the city-state. From the beginning the people were 
divided into two classes. The first three tribes, two of 
which we have already mentioned, were called Patricians, 
and those added later were called Plebeians. The Patri- 
cians thought themselves better than the Plebeians, so 
they tried to keep in their own hands all the important 
powers of government. They insisted that the principal 
officials of Pome should be selected from their own number. 
In time the Plebeians objected to such a plan as being 
unfair to themselves and demanded better treatment. 

A long and bitter struggle began, which lasted hundreds 
of years. During this time the Plebeians secured the 
famous Twelve Tables of the Law, which made plain to 
all just what the laws were; and finally they won a great 
victory by obtaining, through a body which was known 
as the Plebeian Assembly, a share in making the laws 
(287 B. C). So it came about that all the freemen, as in 
Athens, could now have some share in governing them- 
selves. 



HOW THE ROMANS BEGAN 



61 



46. The Story of Cincinnatus. — ^While this struggle TheRo- 
was going on within the city itself, the Romans were in ™nstant 
constant warfare with other tribes and cities in various warfare 
parts of Italy. Sometimes they met with defeat for a 

time, but in the main they were successful and grew 
steadily by adding to their number other tribes and cities, 
which; however, they kept wholly subject to themselves. 
A glimpse of one of these early wars with a mountain 
tribe is given in the story of Cincinnatus. 

According to this legend, the Roman army had been cincinnatus 
surrounded and was in a very dangerous situation. When enemy^ 
the bad news came to Rome, there seemed to be only one 
thing to do. That was to appoint as dictator their lead- 
ing citizen, Cincinnatus, a member of an old Patrician 
family. Messengers found him ploughing his little f^irm 
just across the Tiber. When he received 
the news of his appointment he wiped from 
his forehead the sweat and dust and at once 
left his plough. Entering the city, he raised 
an army and promptly marched against the 
enemy. In sixteen days he had defeated 
them, and was back again living the simple 
life of a modest farmer. 

47. The Remarkable Success of the 
Romans. — ^The stories cf lioratius and of 
Cincinnatus suggest to us the kind of men 
these early Romans were. For nearly five 
hundred years after the alleged founding of 
Rome (753 B. C.) such men had slowly but surely ex- 
tended her power until they had made her the leader of 
Italy. The remarkable success of the Romans, we shall 




A ro:,:an slingeh 



62 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 

find; therefore, was due in part to the geography of Rome 
and Italy, but in a far higher degree to the men them- 
selves. They did a great work in Italy, and later on in 
the world outside of Italy, because they were fitted for 
their task. It was what the men were in themselves that 
explains their great deeds. 

48. The Early Roman's Manner of Living. — ^Before 
following them into this larger phase of their history, let 
us pause to note a few conditions of their every-day liv- 
ing, a few prominent traits in their character, and a few 
ways in which they dealt with other cities, tribes, and 
peoples. 

For hundreds of years after the founding of their city, 
most of the Homans were peasants who owned little 
farms many of which contained not more than four acres. 
As a rule they lived outside the walls, coming into the city 
only on market days and for special occasions. The 
father and his sons did most of the work, as there were but 
few slaves and the families were large. There w^ere also 
cattle-owners and some traders and merchants. Nearly 
all that they needed in food and clothing v/as prepared in 
the home by the women-folk and slaves. 

Let us, in imagination, visit one of these peasant fami- 
lies and see for ourselves how few w^ere their home com- 
forts. We find the entire family living in a mere hut 
without windows and with a single door. On the side cf 
the room facing the door is a hearth, and in the roo^ 
directly above is an opening which serves the double pur- 
pose of letting out the smoke and letting in the light. 

Sitting about a rude table, on stools equally rude, we 
find the family eating meal boiled with water and drinking 



HOW THE ROMANS BEGAN 



63 




either water or milk. 
Their dress is as sim- 
ple as their house and 
food. The man has 
wrapped about his 
waist a strip of cloth, 
and over this he 
wears a woollen shirt, 
or tunic, which has 
short sleeves and 
reaches down as far 
as his knees. We 
notice, however, that 
when he leaves his 
house a little later to 
appear in pubhc he 
puts on a toga. This 

is a white woollen blanket, which he folds before grace- 
fully wrapping it about his body. Both men and women 
go without hats and without stockings, but they wear 
shoes or sandals. 

49. The Roman Family. — Such was the early Roman's Absolute 
manner of living. The father had absolute power in his the father 
own household. He could do what he pleased with all the 
household goods. He also had the right to banish, sell as 
slaves, or even put to death, his children. Although this 
may seem strange to us, it did not seem strange to the 
Roman. To him the family meant much, but a single 
individual meant little. In order that the family might why the 
be strong, any member of it must be ready to give up all absolute^ 
for its best welfare. The reason for this was that fight- p®^^"^ 



THE SIMPLE DEESS OF THE ROMANS 



64 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



ing was a constant necessity. Every family was a little 
military company, and the captain had to be obeyed in- 
stantly and wholly or all might be killed or made slaves. 
It was better, then, they thought, for the head of the 
family to decide what was best to do, even if the deci- 
sion led to the death of his own child. 

50. Roman Patriotism. — ^Just as a member of the house- 
hold should be willing to put aside any wishes and interests 
of his own for the good of the family, so should any citizen 
of Rome be ready to pass through any trial, endure any 
suffering, meet any danger, or even give up life itself, if 
by so doing he could better serve his country. The Ro- 
mans of those earlier days were faithful to one another 
and loyal to their state. They cheerfully submitted to 
law and order. In fact the world has never seen a finer 
example of patriotism. Their intense love of country 
played a very important part in making them great. 
Such men were heroes. 

51. The Romans Extend Their Power in Italy. — ^Their 
respect for law and order not only made it easier for them 
to unite, but it also helped them to bind together the peo- 
ples they conquered. For although they treated these 
conquered peoples as subjects, they gave them better laws 
and far greater security than they had had before, and 
allowed them much freedom in managing their local 
affairs. 

On the conquered land the Romans settled communi- 
ties of loyal Roman citizens; and these '^ Little Romes," 
scattered here and there throughout Italy, became centres 
for the spread of Roman ideas and ways of doing things. 
All the tribes and cities were connected with Rome by a 



THE STRUGGLE BETWEEN ROME AND CARTHAGE 65 

superb system of public roads. Thus the Romans stead- 
ily extended their power imtil, about five hundred years 
after the founding of the city, they had become the mas- 
ters of all the present Italy south of the Rubicon River. 

THINGS TO REMEMBER 

1. Italy was well situated for world trade. 2. Rome also had 
an important situation. 3. The remarkable success of the Romans 
was due in a measure to the geography of Rome and Italy, but in 
a far higher degree to the men themselves. 4. In the early days 
of their history the Romans lived a simple life. 5. The father had 
absolute power in his own household. 6. The Romans were a 
heroic and nation-loving people. 

TO THE PUPIL 

1. Explain in what way both Italy and Rome were well situated. 

2. Tell the stories of Romulus and Remus, of Horatius at the bridge, 
and of Cincinnatus. What do you thmk of Horatius ? Of Cincinnatus ? 

3. What was the bitter struggle between the Patricians and the Plebe- 
nftns, and how did it end ? 

4. How do you explain the remarkable success of the Romans? 

5. Imagine yourself in the home of a Roman and tell all you can about it. 

6. In what ways were the Romans patriotic ? What do you admire in 
isaese people ? 

7. Tell what you can about how the Romans extended their power in 
Italy. 

CHAPTER yil 

THE STRUGGLE BETWEEN ROME AND 
CARTHAGE 

52. How the Struggle Began. — ^After Rome had gained Rome in 
control of the tribes and cities in Italy, and had made their itaiy 
people either citizens or allieS; it was plainly her duty to 
defend them against their enemies and to protect their 



66 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



"The Greek 
cities in 
Italy and 
Sicily 



Carthage a 
trading city 



The first 
war with 
Carthage 



commerce. It became necessary, after carrying her con- 
quests to the southern shores of Italy, for her to extend 
them farther. 

The Greek cities of that region, as well as those of the 
neighboring island of Sicily, had been from time to time 
much vexed by bands of sea robbers. The cities would 
not unite for defence, but, like the Greek cities of their 
home land, held aloof from one another and even quarrelled 
among themselves. The cities of Sicily had frequently 
called in Carthage to help them settle their troubles, and 
this gave her a footing on the island. 

Carthage was a famous trading city on the north coast 
of Africa (close by where Tunis now is), almost directly 
south of Rome and about a hundred miles away. Her 
population was perhaps a million, and she had control of 
much of northern Africa, of the islands of Corsica and Sar- 
dinia, and also of parts of Sicily and Spain. Her immense 
commerce had given her great power, which of course she 
wished to extend just as Rome wished to extend hers. 
This could be done only by destroying the Roman fleets, 
for no two countries in those days would share trade in 
peaceful competition. 

The two cities, therefore, became bitter rivals; and as 
only a narrow strait between Sicily and Italy separated 
them, they were bound to come to blows for the posses- 
sion of the island. AVhen, in 264 B. C, Rome sent aid 
to one of the Greek cities of Sicily, Carthage accepted the 
act as a challenge, and the first Carthaginian war began. 
It lasted twenty-four years. Carthage met with severe 
defeat. She was obliged to give up Sicily, and had to 
pay Rome an enormous sum of money. 



68 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



Hannibal's 
oath 



War with 
Rome 



53. Hamilcar and Rome. — Hamilcar, the last of the 
Punic generals who fought in the war for Sicily, bore such 
a hatred toward Rome that he longed to humble her. 
Although Carthage was still rich and powerful, her mer- 
chants cared more for trade than for avenging their honor, 
and so they would not pro\dde an army, Hamilcarj there- 
fore, undertook to conquer Spain, where both Rome and 
Carthage had settlements, and there to secure men and 
money for making war upon Rome. Before he could ac- 
complish his purpose he fell in battle. But he left a son, 
Hannibal, who in time carried out his mshes. 

54. Hannibal and War with Rome. — ^WTien Hannibal 
was only nine years old, his father had taken him to the 

altar of the great god of Carthage, 
where the boy swore always to hate 
Rome and to do everything in his power 
to injure her. Hannibal never forgot his 
oath; and when, at the age of twenty- 
eight, he was put in command of the 
Carthaginian army in Spain, he began 
to make good his word. By attacking 
Saguntum, a city on the Spanish coast, 
which was an ally of Rome, he provoked 
a declaration of war (218 B. C); but 
before the Roman fleet could reach Saguntum, Hannibal 
was far on his way toward Italy. By the route he had 
chosen, Rome was eleven hundred miles away — a dis- 
tance greater than that between New York and Chicago. 

55. Hannibal Crosses the Alps. — We need not follow 
in detail this long war. But let us give our attention to 
the famous passage of the Alps and to one or two incidents 




HANNIBAL 



THE STRUGGLE BETWEEN ROME AND CARTHAGE 69 



in the many years of campaigns and battles. We can then 
see what a wonderful man Hannibal was, and how great 
a thing it was for the Romans to defeat him. 

Having crossed the Pyrenees and forded the Rhone, Hannibal's 
he began late in October the ascent of the Alps, with some- ^"^^ 
thing like fifty thousand men and fifty-eight elephants. 
These elephants were used for a sort of heavy cavalry, their 
immense size frightening the foe and breaking his ranks. 

To cross the Alps was a gigantic undertaking, and put a trying 
to severe test his courage and skill as a general. The very b^^^qX 
first day the army was at- 
tacked by hostile moun- ^^-^j, 
tain tribes from the '; 
heights above. They \ 
hurled javelins and rolled 
great masses of rocks 
upon Hannibal's troops. 
The pathway was narrow 
and the mountains were 
steep and slippery. Hun- 
dreds of men and horses 
lost their footing and fell 

thousands of feet to their death on the rocks below. It 
looked as if the whole army might be destroyed. But 
Hannibal was equal to the situation. Having learned 
that the mountaineers did not keep watch during the 
night, he sent after dark a body of troops to occupy the 
position which the enemy had held during the day. 
When the natives appeared on the next morning, they 
were quickly driven off, and the way was left open for 
the entire army to pass on in safety. 




HANNIBAL AND HIS ARMT CROSSING THE ALPS 



70 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



The false 
guides 



More 
trouble for 
the army 



Intense 
suffering of 
men and 
beasts 



The great 
Hannibal 



Four or five days later another tribe of mountaineers, 
carrying branches in their hands in token of peace, offered 
to act as guides for Hannibal. But leading his army into 
a narrow defile, they fell upon it with savage iury. It 
was only after a hard fight that he was able to drive off 
his foes. 

On reaching the summit, Hannibal found the descent 
to be even harder than the climbing had been. The 
mountains were steeper to the south and the pathway 
more dangerous. At one point an avalanche blocked the 
way, and it required three days to cut a pathway wide 
enough for the elephants to pass. 

When, fifteen days after beginning the ascent, the whole 
army reached the plain below, twenty thousand men had 
been lost; and the survivors, ragged, weak, and worn, 
looked like walking skeletons. Many horses also had 
died, and those still alive were so weak that they could 
hardly stand. Only the strongest of men and of beasts 
had been able to endure the intense suffering from cold 
and hunger, as well as from the blinding snowstorms and 
the fierce attacks of the hostile tribes. 

Yet during all this period of trial and hardship, Hanni- 
bal never lost courage. Fearless and tireless in action, 
cool and steady in the face of danger, he pressed rapidly 
onward. Many nights he slept on the bare earth with 
no covering but his long cloak. All such hardships he 
shared with his men, and this gained their lasting good- 
will and friendship. They were always ready to follow 
wherever he might lead. They trusted him as a man; 
they idolized him as a general ; and his perfect command 
over them made them wellnigh invincible in battle. He 



THE STRUGGLE BETWEEN ROME AND CARTHAGE 71 

was one of the greatest generals of all times, as the Romans 
were soon to find out. 

56. The War Long and Terrible. — In the terrible war 
which he carried into the heart of Italy; and even to the 
very gates of Rome, he showed wonderful ability; some- 
times almost destroying an entire army at one blow, and 
at other times getting away from the enemy when they 
thought they had entrapped him. 

The battle of Trasimene is a good example of his skill Hannibai^ 
in battle. Trasimene is a lake in Etruria^ about one hun- enemy in a 
dred miles from Rome. Close by its northern shore ran *^^^ 
a road along which the Roman army would naturally pass. 
At two points in this road high mountains came so close 
to the shore that only narrow passes were left. Between 
these two passes the land broadened into a plain with 
mountains on one side and water on the other. By clos- 
ing the two passes a trap could be made, from which 
escape would be very difficult for those once caught. 
Hannibal made ready the trap. He concealed a strong 
body of men near each pass in order to close it up when 
once the enemy had entered. Then he hid the rest of the 
army in the woods and underbrush covering the mountain 
sides. The soldiers were to attack the Roman army as 
soon as it was penned in. 

On the morning cf the battle a thick fog helped to a thick fog 
keep Hannibal's army more completely out of sight. 
Hannibal waited patiently until the Roman legions were 
well inside the trap. Then from aU sides his men fell upon 
them. The slaughter was terrible. The Roman army 
was almost totally destroyed. 

His genius again flashed out in the ruse of the oxen. 



72 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



The ruse 
of the oxen 



Hannibal 
the victor 
in every 
battle 



The Senate 
and the Ro- 
man people 
brave 



An able Roman general had so completely surrounded 
Hannibal's army, which was encamped in a valley not 
far from the city of Capua, that it seemed impossible for 
him to escape. But he was too shrewd to be caught. 
At night he ordered his men to tie burning fagots to the 
horns of two thousand oxen and drive them up the moun- 
tain side. When the Romans saw the mass of moving 
lights, they supposed it was the Carthaginian army; so 
they climbed the mountains to prevent their escape. 
Then the wily Hannibal calmly marched through the pass 
which the Romans had left unguarded. 

Thus for fifteen years the terrible war went on. In the 
first three of these years four pitched battles were fought, 
in every one of which Hannibal was the victor. Even 
when the Roman army greatly outnumbered his own, it 
w^as no match for him. During the rest of the time the 
two armies never came face to face in open fight, but 
Hannibal plundered and terrified the people and ravaged 
the country until vast stretches lay waste and barren. 
Great was the distress and suffering in Italy, as you can 
well imagine. 

At one time Hannibal marched his army right to Rome 
itself, and threatened to capture that very centre of the 
nation. But at no time during this distressing war did 
the great ruling body, the Senate, waver in its firm and 
unyielding purpose to carry on the war. Its members were 
unselfish and patriotic, and the Roman people, upon whom 
the losses fell so heavily, stood back of them in this resolve 
not to give up. They were fighting for their homes and 
their country; and to these sturdy, patient, nation-loving 
men, death itself was more welcome than defeat. 



THE STRUGGLE BETWEEN ROME AND CARTHAGE 73 

It is not surprising that Hannibal could not conquer Rome's 
such a people. His task might have been easier if he had faltSui 
been able to get the help he expected from Rome's allies. *° ^®' 
But very few of them deserted Rome, and those really 
because they were forced to do so. They were bound 




A ROMAN SEAPORT, SHIPS OF WAR AND OTHER CRAFT 



to Rome by ties of race and of religion, and they could 
not hope for nearly so good a government from these Afri- 
cans as that which they already had under Roman law 
and order. 

57. Rome Crushes the Power of Carthage. — Finally 
when the Romans carried the war into Africa, Hannibal 
had to leave Italy in order to defend Carthage. On the 
plains of Zama, not far from Carthage, a battle was fought 
between Hannibal and the Roman commander Scipio 
(202 B. C), which not only ended the war but crushed 
forever the power of Carthage in the ancient world. 



74 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 

Some years later Hannibal died in exile. About fifty 
years after the battle of Zama the Romans burned Car- 
thage to the ground. 



THINGS TO REMEMBER 

1. Rome and Carthage came to be great rivals. 2. In the first 
war between them Carthage met with severe defeat. 3. Hannibal 
was wonderful in his power over men and in his skill as a general. 
4. In the terrible and distressing war both the Senate and the 
Roman people were brave, unselfish, and patriotic. 5. The war 
ended in the defeat of Carthage, and about fifty years later Rome 
burned Carthage to the ground. 

TO THE PUPIL 

1. How did there come to be war between Rome and Carthage ? 

2. What was Hannibal's oath, and how did he begin to make good his 
word ? 

3. Imagine yourself with him when he crossed the Alps and tell about 
your experiences. At this time how did Hannibal show his greatness ? 

4. What was the ruse of the oxen ? 

5. How do you explain the fact that Hannibal was the victor in every 
battle ? 

6. Explain why Hannibal could not conquer Rome. 

7. Why were Rome's allies faithful fo her ? 

8. What became of Carthage ? What became of Hannibal ? 

9. Locate on the map all countries and cities mentioned in the text. 



CHAPTER VIII 

THE ROMANS IN THE WEST 

58. The Romans Extend Their Conquests. — After 
bringing under her rule Italy- and Carthage, Rome began 
to push out her borders in all directions. Just as Alex- 
ander the Great had conquered Egypt and the Persian 
Empire, and had prepared for the spread of Greek ideas 



THE ROMANS IN THE WEST 



75 



and ways of living, so the Roman nation after the conquest 
of Carthage reached out into the lands lying all about the 
Mediterranean Sea, and made ready the path for the 
Roman customs to travel. 

We should hke to watch Rome as she brings under her 
rule Egypt, Greece, and other countries in the East, but 
we must keep our minds mostly upon that part of the life 
stor}^ of the Romans which helps to explain how the great 
things they worked out came to be a part of our American 
hfe. 

59. The Romans in the West. — Let us, then, follow 
them as they push their way into the country that bor- 
dered Italy on the north-w^est, which they 
called Gaul, and then on across the English 
Channel to the island of Britain. We must 
needs learn something also of the early strug- 
gles with the Germans. We shall then see 
more clearly how Roman customs and ideas 
grew to be a part of those of England, France, 
and Germany, and shall understand how it 
was that the men who came to America from 
these countries brought with them much that 
had been taught by the Romans. 

60. Caesar and the Germans. — ^Their first 
advance was northward into Gaul, and this 
caused their first conflict with the Germans. Julius The 
Caesar, who was the greatest of all the Roman generals, in Gaul 
led this advance. But he had not gone far before he 
found that he had to reckon with a man far more dan- 
gerous than any Gallic leader. This man was Ariovistus, 

a German king. Some years before, this giant king had 




JULIUS CESAR 



76 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



Caesar's 
bridge 
across the 
Rhine 



led an army out of the forests of Germany across the 
Rhine. Invited by two of the Gallic tribes^ he had come 
to fight for them against another tribe. After helping to 
conquer their foes, he and his victorious followers pro- 
ceeded to take into their own hands the leadership of 
all Gaul. 

The growing power of this German king was a great 
obstacle to Caesar^ who decided to get rid of liim. He 
therefore at once made plans to secure food supplies for 
his army; and took up the march against Ariovistus. 

It was not long before the natives and traders of Gaul 
began to bring in reports of the huge size, the fierce eyes, 
the wonderful braver}^, and the great number of these 
f 3arless German warriors, who for fourteen years had not 
come under the shelter of a roof. The Roman soldiers 
.were seized with panic. Some of them wept. Many made 
their wills. Others begged that they might go back to 
their homes, although they insisted, in their shame at 
seeming to fear men, that it was only the trackless forests 
of which they were afraid. 

But Caesar did not hesitate in his purpose. He was more 
than willing to measure his well-drilled legions against 
the German forces. Soon a battle was fought, and the 
Germans were badly defeated. They fled to the Rhine, 
Ariovistus with the rest. Some of them got away in 
boats, some swam across, but most of them perished. 

From this first meeting with the Germans, Csesar 
learned a lesson of great value. He had tested the fighting 
ability of the huge, fierce warriors, and had come into a 
wholesome respect for their fighting powers. He also 
knew that there were vast hordes of them in the German 



THE ROMANS IN THE WEST 



77 




Cesar's bridge over the rhine (showing 
construction) 



forest. In order that he might be able to advance with 
his army swiftly into their territory, he made use of the 
Roman skill to build, in what seemed to the Germans a 
miraculously short time, a huge bridge over the Rhine. 

6i. Caesar Invades Britain. — After some three years Reasons for 
of warring with the Gauls, Caesar decided to invade Brit- *^® evasion 
ain (55 B. C.). This was 
because the Celts of Britain 
were kinsmen by race of 
those in Gaul, and not only 
sent them help, but fur- 
nished them an easy ref- 
uge across the Channel 
when hard pressed by the 
Romans. So the Roman 
conquest of Gaul was not 

secure unless the Britons were conquered and curbed as 
well. Doubtless also Caesar wished to obtain more booty 
and glory for himself and Rome. 

On this first expedition he crossed the English Channel The first 
in three hundred small vessels, and with an army of from "^^^^^°° 
eight thousand to ten thousand men. Approaching the 
coast of Britain near the spot where Dover is now, he 
found the shore covered with the enemy's forces, whose 
chariots moved along the shore as fast as his galleys sailed 
through the water. Although the natives fought bravely 
to prevent him from landing, the well-drilled Romans suc- 
ceeded in driving them away. But the Britons, although 
they retreated inland for safety at this time, returned 
later to annoy the invaders. On the water there was 
trouble also, for a storm had injured the Roman fleet. 



78 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



This danger was repaired^ and after a stay of only three 
weeks, Caesar sailed back to Gaul. 

Next spring he again invaded Britain, this time with 
eight hundred vessels, and with a force of twenty thou- 
sand to twenty-five thousand foot soldiers and two thou- 




A ROMAN GENERAL. ADDRESSING HIS TROOPS 



sand horsemen. On this occasion he landed unopposed, 
pitched his camp on the sea-shore, and advanced inland. 
Cassivelaunus (Caswallon), a Celtic chief and the leader 
of the Britons, instead of fighting a battle, withdrew into 
the forests and marshes. Caesar's troops, following, were 
attacked in the rear by other chiefs of Britain whose land 
had been crossed. Still other Britons attacked his camp 
on the sea-coast. Meanwhile a storm injured the Roman 
fleet. Caesar by remaining longer would have run the 
risk of being detained till his army was thinned or cut 
to pieces by these assaults. As the gain was not worth 



iHE ROMANS IN THE WEST 



79 




ROMAN BATHS AT BATH, ENGLAND, AS TBEY LOOK TO-DAT 



the danger, he made peace with the natives and again 
sailed back to Gaul after a stay of sixty days. His only 



80 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 

booty was some slaves. He had done nothing but alarm 
the Britons and give them a sense of Roman power. 
What 62. The Romans Conquer Britain. — It was Caesar's 

®^^ last visit to this island. Indeed we must pass over 

nearly a century before we find the Romans again enter- 
ing Britain. But if we take this long look ahead; we shall 
see that they then conquered all but the northern part, 
brought it under Roman rule, and stayed three and a half 
centuries, building many cities and roads. This period 
of Roman occupation in Britain is longer than the Eng- 
lish occupation of America has been. 

The cities were centres of Roman life, where luxurious 
villas, baths, and amphitheatres helped to make life 
agreeable for the officers and garrisons stationed there, 
and for the families of merchants and traders. London, 
York, Lincoln, and Chester still contain parts of the old 
Roman walls built during those years. Some of the best 
highways that are now in use in England have for their 
foundations the old Roman roads. Four of them centred 
at London and three at Chester. 
Caesar's 63. An Uprising of Gallic Tribes. — Coming back to a 

daring dee p^j-^Q J ^,^q years after the Romans entered Britain the 
second time, we find that many of the tribes of Gaul had 
risen to throw off the Roman yoke. These Gallic tribes 
were already well advanced in the arts of living and 
bitterly opposed Roman rule in Gaul. A brave young 
general, Vercingetorix, was their leader. Before the up- 
rising had reached its full strength, Caesar, the Roman 
ruler of Gaul, suddenly appeared. News of the uprising 
had reached him in Italy, where he was busy with 
affairs of state. Although it was the middle of winter, 



THE ROMANS IN THE WEST 



81 



with a small escort of cavalry he had hastened through 
the heart of the enemy's country to put himself at the 
head of his troops. Such a daring deed none but a man 
of heroic nature would ever attempt. 

But even after reaching his army, Csesar faced a danger- The plan of 
ous situation, as we shall soon see. Vercingetorix was a getorix" 
brave and able leader. He knew that, in 
open battle, the well-trained Roman legions 
would be certain to defeat his troops. So he 
decided to adopt a kind of guerilla, or irreg- 
ular, warfare. His plan was, by burning 
the towns and villages and laying waste the 
land, to starve Caesar's army out of Gaul. 
It worked well for a time AMierever Csesar 
marched he found the country deserted and 
saw the smoke of burning villages. More 
than twenty towns were burned in a single 
day. 

But the people of Bourges were so proud 
of their prosperous city that they could not 

bear to see it destroyed, and flatly refused to burn it. Trying days 
Csesar made an attack upon it, and for weeks it stub- Romans 
bornly held out. The Roman soldiers suffered severely 
from cold. In his efforts to cut them off from food, 
Vercingetorix attacked them again and again, and was so 
successful that at times they were without bread for days 
together. But Csesar persisted until he had captured 
the city. Then, in order to make a terrible object-lesson 
for the rest of Gaul, he massacred all its inhabitants. 

A little later, when Csesar attacked Vercingetorix at Caesar 
the town of Gergovia, he was repulsed with heavy loss. 




LIGHT-ARMED SOLDIER 



82 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



Caesar wins 
a victory 




A trying 
siege 



The outlook for bringing Gaul again under Roman con- 
trol was dreaiy. Even Caesar was discouraged. To meet 
the desperate situation he marched in the direction of 
Germany, and there enrolled in his army a strong force 
of German cavalry. 

64. Caesar Defeats Vercingetorix. — In the meantime 
the Gauls, greatly encouraged by the way things were 

going, determined to wage 
war on a larger scale than 
before. Vercingetorix was to 
fortify Alesia (about thirty 
miles north-west of the pres- 
ent Dijon), and, avoiding 
open battle, was to give 
Caesar all the trouble possi- 
ble while the Roman army 
was on its march to that city. 
But his men were so eager to fight that Vercingetorix 
could not control them. He was forced, therefore, into 
an open battle with the Romans, now greatly aided by 
the German cavalry, and met with a severe defeat. 

Then he retreated to Alesia and there awaited Caesar. 
The siege that followed was a trying one — for Caesar, for 
the people of the city, and for Vercingetorix. There were 
many weeks of untold suffering. At last when the Gallic 
soldiers and the people of Alesia were almost without 
food, Vercingetorix sent out into the open plain between 
the city and the Roman army all who were unable to 
fight — the women and children, the sick and the aged. 
He hoped Caesar would take them prisoners and give them 
food. But Caesar had no food for his own men. And so 



A ROMAN CAMP 



THE ROMANS IN THE WEST 



83 




HOMAN STANDARDS 



before the veiy eyes of fathers, husbands, and friends, 
these helpless men, women, and children died in the 
agonies of hunger. 

At last after desperate fighting the Gauls surrendered. The fate of 
and Vercingetorix, dressed in full armor, rode proudly into od?"^^^*' 
the presence of Caesar. Then, giving up his arms and his 
steed, he sat down in si- 
lence at the feet of his 
conqueror. Five years 
later this daring leader 
of a lost cause was led 
in a triumphal proces- 
sion through the streets 
of Rome; and wMe his 
conqueror was offering 
solemn thanks to the 
gods at the summit of the Capitol, he was beheaded 
at its foot for the part he had taken in an uprising of 
his countrymen against Roman rule in Gaul. For the 
French, Vercingetorix is a national hero to-day. 

65. The Romans Successful Teachers. — In this brief The Romans 
account of Caesar's invasions of Gaul and Britain, and of ^ctorious^ 
his war with Ariovistus, w^e get little more than a few im- ^amors 
pressions of the way in which he extended Roman power 
in the West. What we wish to remember, however, is 
not so much the battles he fought, or the extent of his con- 
quests over the Gauls, the Germans, and the Britons, as 
the fact that, like Alexander the Great, he was making 
ready for the spread of Roman thought, Roman customs, 
and Roman ways of living. The Romans were more than 
victorious warriors. They were also successful teachers of 



They were 
also 

successful 
teachers 



84 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



the countries they ruled with their wise laws. The very 
barbarians who fought them knew and envied their su- 
periority, copied their manners, tried to live like them, 
bought their wares, were glad to come under a rule of law 
like theirs, and by degrees became civilized like themselves. 



THINGS TO REMEMBER 

1. After the conquest of Carthage the Roman nation reached 
out into the lands lying all about the Mediterranean Sea and made 
ready the path for Roman customs to travel. 2. Since Roman 
customs and ideas grew to be a part of those of England, France, 
and Germany, the men who later came to America from these 
countries brought with them much that had been taught them by 
the Romans. 3. What we wish to remember, then, is not so much 
the battles Csesar fought, or the extent of his conquests over the 
Gauls, the Germans, and the Britons, as the fact that, like Alex- 
ander the Great, he was making ready for the spread of Roman 
thought, Roman customs, and Roman ways of living. 



TO THE PUPIL 

1. How far did the Romans extend their conquests ? Point out as 
many as you know of the countries they conquered. 

2. What did Caesar do in Gaul and in Britain ? 

3. Who was Ariovistus ? How did Caesar get aid from the Germans 
later ? 

4. Why did Caesar invade Britain, and with what results ? 

5. Tell all you can of Roman Ufe in Britain during the three and a half 
centuries of Roman rule there ? 

6. Who was Vercingetorix ? What did he try to do? What became 
of him ? 

7. What is meant by saying that the Romans were not only successful 
warriors but also successful teachers ? 

8. Are you using your map in the preparation of every lesson ? 



ROME THE CAPITAL OF AN EMPIRE 



85 



CHAPTER IX 
ROME THE CAPITAL OF AN EMPIRE 



66. The Vast Empire and Its Capital. — In time the The Roman 

Romans brought under their control most of the civihzed ^^^^ 
world and made of it one great state^ or empire, as it was 
called later. In Europe this included all of Italy, Greece, 
Spain, France (Gaul), and what is now England, as well 
as parts of Germany, of Austria-Hungary, of the Balkan 
states, and of the Turkish Empire. In general, we may 
say that all of Europe lying south of the Danube and west 
of the Rhine came to be a part of the Roman Empire. 

Such was its vast extent. Its centre and capital was The capita) 
Rome, which at the time when 
Augustus was Emperor probably 
contained not far from a million 
and a half people, or something 
like as many as Philadelphia con- 
tains now. An imaginary visit 
to the city in the days of its im- 
perial greatness will give us a 
glimpse of its magnificence. 

Passing through its narrow, 
winding streets we soon find 
ourselves gazing in admiration at 
massive public buildings which 

for hundreds of years played a large part in the life of 
the rich and the poor. Since in the days of the empire 
the Romans made pleasure-seeking one of their chief 
aims, let us first go to the principal centres of amuse- 



^^MR^" 


RHBv 



A BIT OP ANCIENT WALL OF EOME 



86 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



ment — the theatre^ the amphitheatre, the circuS; and the 
bath — and see what takes place there. 

67. The Theatre. — ^Although the theatre furnished a 
sort of amusement for great numbers of the lower classes, 
it did not reach such a position of dignity and influence as 
.^.^^.s;^ it had held at 

'"^^ - ^ """ Athens. We may 

therefore pass it 
by with the simple 
statement that the 
plays were not, as 
a rule, such as peo- 
ple of fine feeling 
and pure thought 
would care to wit- 
ness. 

68. The Coli- 




^'^'^ 






THE COLISEUM, ROME 



The gladi- 
ators and 
the contests 



seum. — But the 
forms of amusement which appealed to all sorts and con- 
ditions of men in Rome were the gladiatorial show and 
the chariot races. The gladiatorial contests were held 
in the amphitheatres, the largest and greatest of which 
was the Coliseum. Its wonderful ruins can still be seen. 
It covered nearly six acres, and seated eighty-seven 
thousand men and women, who took a keen delight in 
the cruel spectacles they witnessed within its walls. 

We can imagine the vast throng seated and eager for 
the exciting events of the day. First comes a procession, 
which includes a parade of chariots. Then follow the 
gladiators themselves. Armed with swords and spears, 
they march around the vast arena before they engage in 



ROME THE CAPITAL OF AN EMPIRE 



87 




FIGHTING GLADIATOR 



deadly combat with one another or with wild beasts. 
Sometimes they fight in pairs and sometimes in large 
numbers. At other times the bloody duel is between two 
animals much unlike, as a Hon and a bear, a wild boar 
and an elephant, or a bull and a tiger. 
The more the people saw of these brutal scenes the more Brutal 

SC6I16S 

they craved such entertainment. In one 
case the contests lasted for one hundred 
and twenty-three days, and during these 
days some thousands of animals were killed 
and ten thousand gladiators fought. 

69. The Circus Maximus. — ^Rivalling the 
amphitheatre in excitement and interest 
was the circus, where the chariot races were 
held. The largest one in Rome was the Cir- 
cus Maximus, a structure of such mammoth 
size that it would seat four hundred thousand spectators. 

Four and sometimes six chariots took part in a race. 
Each was drawn by a number of horses, from four to ten 
abreast, the driver standing erect, dressed in a short 
colored tunic. The colors used for the tunics were red, 
white, green, and blue. Each driver's color was worn also 
by those among the on-lookers v/ho hoped to see him win. 
Thus the spectators were divided into four parties. Each 
man's interest centred in the success of his chosen color. 
Seven times around the course sped the charioteers, cover- 
ing a distance of about four miles. The turns were so 
sharp that, when the horses were racing at full speed, 
chariots were sometimes upset or smashed and their 
drivers maimed or killed. Such accidents made the excite- 
ment all the keener. The clatter of the chariots, the cries 



The chariot 
races 



88 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 




A CHARIOT liACE 



Successful 
charioteers 



of the drivers^ and the wild shouts of the thousands of 
spectators made "a scene which one who witnessed it could 
never forget. 

Some of the most successful charioteers, who were either 
freedmen or slaves, made large fortunes. It is said that 
one of these had earned sixty thousand dollars by the time 
he was twenty-one years old, and that still another left 
his son more than one million four hundred thousand 
dollars. 

70. The Baths. — Another way in which the rich 
sought amusement was in the public baths. These build- 
ings were like huge and luxurious club-houses. Not only 
could men take hot, cold, swimming, or steam baths, but 
they could spend their time pleasantly in other wa}'s. 
For attached to the high-class baths were gymnasiums,, 
lounging, and resting rooms adorned with statues and pict- 
ures, libraries, and even gardens where visitors could meet 
for walks and conversation. In the same building were 



ROME THE CAPITAL OF AN EMPIRE 89 

also shops and restaurants. The baths were usually 
crowded. Sometimes men spent the entire day there. 
"Two baths a day make two days," they said, and they 
often took many in the course of a day to increase the 
joy of hving. 

71. The Palace and the Villa. — Still more amazing The golden 
in its dazzling splendor was the golden house of Nero. It N°ero^ ^ 
covered an area of a square mile; its walls glittered with 

gold, gems, and pearls; and it contained thousands of 
graceful columns and beautiful wall paintings and statues. 

Although this wonderful palace had no rival in Rome, The luxuri- 
yet many wealthy Romans owned luxurious villas. Like °"^ ^ ^^ 
the golden house of Nero, they were ornamented with 
marble columns, beautiful pictures, urns richly carved, 
and vases of marble, bronze, silver, and gold. Far dif- 
ferent were such gorgeous dwellings from the one-room 
cabins in the early days of simple living in Rome. 

72. The People of Rome. — ^These magnificent build- Slaves 
ings and this grandeur of living point to the untold wealth ^^ ^°°^® 
which the Romans had acquired through their conquests. 
From the same sources also they had acquired great num- 

bei-s of slaves. Some of these had been captured in war, 
and many others had been brought to Rome through her 
extensive slave trade. It is believed that after the con- 
quest of Gaul by Caesar, slaves made nearly one-half of the 
population of Rome. 

What was true of Rome was true in greater or less de- slaves 
gree of other parts of Italy. Millions of slaves crowded "^ ^^^ 
the peninsula. They were very cheap. It is said that 
at the close of a successful war in the East the Roman 
commander sold his captives for an average price of eighty 



90 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



The idle 
rabble in 
Rome 



Two classes 
of freemen 



«t^ i 



cents a head. The man was poor who did not own at 
least three or four slaves, -and it was not uncommon for 
a rich land-owner to own hundreds. He employed cheap 
slave labor to culti- 
vate his huge estate, 
formed by uniting the 
many small farms 
which his wealth 
made it easy for him 
to buy. Thus he 
could raise grain at 
less cost than could 
the man who tilled 
his own farm. So the 
small farmers were 
driven out of busi- 
ness. They sold their 
land and flocked to 
Rome, where wdth 
their families they be- 
came a part of the 
idle rabble of the 
city. After a while 

these shiftless folk looked down upon labor as unworthy 
of freemen, and in time slaves came to be almost the only 
workers in Rome. 

The freemen were mainly divided into two great classes 
— the very rich and the ver}^ poor. Both of these classes 
despised labor, and both spent their time in idleness. The 
luxury-loving rich enjoyed feasting and revelry; the loaf- 
ing, beggarly rabble sought free bread and excitement. 



u: 



SCENE AT THE VILLA OF A RICH ROMAN 



ROME THE CAPITAL OF AN EMPIRE 91 

How different were these Romans, who gave themselves 
up to idleness and amusement, from those plain, sturdy, 
self-rehant peasants of the early days! Then obedience 
to law and service to the state were the watchwords. At 
that time Rome was poor in money and goods, but rich 
in strong, brave men. Now she was wealthy in money, 
slaves, houses, and lands, but poor in character and man- 
hood. 

73. The Senate. — ^The same causes that corrupted 
the people corrupted the Senate also. During the strug- 
gle with Carthage this body had kept up the spirit of 
Rome. Now it was unfit to govern. At the time when 
Hannibal was waging war in Italy, most of the senators 
were strong and patriotic. Nov/ the members of that 
body had become weak and corrupt. Hence the Senate 
failed, and victorious generals one by one strove to put 
themselves in control at Rome. For many years a series 

of struggles went on between rival leaders, the most Rival 
prominent of whom were Marius, Sulla, Pompey, Crassus, ^®^^®^ 
and Julius Caesar. Each professed a different aim, though 
the first four called themselves merely servants of the 
government. Caesar openly made himself master of the 
government and the Senate yielded to him as its supe- 
rior and head of the Roman world. 

74. The Forum. — ''Rome," it was said, ''was the centre 
of the world, and the Forum w^as the heart of Rome. " In 
early times, when it was the only open square in Rome, 
it was used as a market and for holding the religious and 
state ceremonies. 

Even in the time of Caesar it was very small, not as large Statues, col» 
as the usual city square, and was crowded with statues bSfdm^^ 



92 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 




RUINS OF THE FORUM 



The people 

in the 
Forum 



Coveted 
honors 



and columns erected in honor of distinguished men. 
Here stood many noble buildings. Among them were 
temples, halls of justice, and the curia, or senate house. 

In the Forum was 
the rostrum, or 
platform, from 
which orations 
were made to the 
people. 

The original 
Forum — there 
were now others 
— was small for 
the imperial busi- 
ness that had to 
be done there, and was, therefore, generally full of people. 
It was said that when a Roman was not at home he was 
in the Forum. In one part were to be found lawyers 
and brokers canying on their business; another part was 
given up to money-lenders; in another were gathered the 
idle rabble; and in still another the nobles and senators 
met. Here, in fact, went on the stirring life of Rome. 
Here one could see men talking over the news of the day; 
orators making speeches to the people; on certain days, 
religious festivals and games; and even, at times, trium- 
phal processions on their way to the Capitol. 

75. A Roman Triumph. — ^The desire nearest the heart 
of every Roman general, was that he might have a tri- 
umph; that is, that he might win a great victory for 
Rome, and as a reward be given a celebration by the 
city. If he should be fortunate enough to win this honor, 



ROME THE CAPITAL OF AN EMPIRE 



93 



he would be a famous man all his life and statues of him 
would keep his glory alive after his death. 

As soon as a commander had conquered an enemy or 
won a province for Rome^ he sent word to the Senate. 
They considered the matter and; if the victory was a 
satisfactoiy one, they decreed a public thanksgiving. 
As soon as the war was over^ the general hastened to 
Rome. But he did not enter the city, for as soon as he 
should pass through the gates his command would be 
over, and he could not have a triumph unless he was still 
at the head of his army. 

Outside the walls, in one of the temples, the Senate 
met him and heard his report. If it was decided to allow 
him a triumph the Senate voted a sum of money for the 
celebration. They 
also arranged that 
the general should 
retain his command 
within the city dur- 
ing the triumph. 

Let us join an ex- 
pectant throng who 
have gathered to view 
a triumph. They 




ARCH OF TRAJAN, TIMGAD, NORTH AFRICA 



crowd the steps of the 
public buildings, jostle each other for standing-room, and 
fill the door-ways. Grandstands put up along the way 
are filled with eager on-lookers. Every one is gayly 
dressed. The temples are open and fragrant with flowers. 
AVhile we wait in the Via Sacra, the general is congratu- 
lating his soldiers and rewarding ttiem for their servicec 



The victori- 
ous general 
and the 
triumph 



The Senate 
and the 
triumph 



A crowd 
gathers to 
see the 
triumph 



Entrance 
into citv 



94 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



The general 
and his 
body-guard 



We must have patience until he can get into his car and 
drive to the Triumphal Gate. Here he will be met by 
the magistrates and the Senate, who then turn about 
and head the gay procession. 

Behind the magistrates and the Senate come the 
trumpeters, followed by wagons loaded with the spoils 
of the war. All sorts of interesting trophies are dis- 
played — models of 
the conquered cities, 
pictures of the newly 
acquired region and 
its rivers and moun- 
tains, jewels and 
w'orks of art, em- 
broidered cloths, gold 
and silver, and every- 
thing which may in- 
terest the people. 
Now come the flute- 
players, preceding the animals, white bulls or oxen with 
gilded horns, which are to be sacrificed, and the priests 
who are to perform this ceremony. If any strange ani- 
mals have been captured, such as elephants, they come 
next, then the insignia of the enemy, and finally the 
captives themselves, whom the people look at with great 
curiosity, for sometimes they come from far-distant 
lands. 

Now appear the victors in single file escorting the 
general in his glory. He is standing in his circular chariot 
drawn by four horses. His robe is of gold embroidery, 
covered with a flowered tunic, and he carries a laurel 




AKCU OF CONSTANTIXK 



ROME THE CAPITAL OF AN EMPIRE 



95 



bough in his right hand; and a sceptre, in his left. On 
his head rests a laurel wreath. By his side are his little 
children or perhaps his closest friends. A slave, standing 
behind him, holds above his head a jewelled crown. His 
body-guard is composed of his grown-up sons, and promi- 
nent officials and citizens, all on horseback. Last of all 
come the infantr}^, with laurel adorning their spears, 
laughing and shouting and singing hymns to the gods as 
lustily as they choose. 

Reaching the Capitoline Hill, the procession begins End of the 
the ascent. The chief captives are led aside into a prison ^""°^P 
and put to death. Then the sacrifices are offered, and the 
laurel wreath placed in the lap of Jupiter. Following 
this comes a great feast in the temple, in honor of the gen- 
eral; and at the close of the day, or of the two or three 
days, in case the triumph is so long, he goes to his home 
attended by a throng of citizens, with pipers and torch- 
bearers in the lead. 

76. The Roman Roads. — ^The arch of triumph through Purposes of 
which we have just seen the triumphal procession pass roads 
illustrates well the remarkable skill of the Romans in 
engineering. In fact they w^ere not only the first to make 
architectural use and on a large scale of the arch and 
the dome, but were also mas- 



terful builders of bridges. 
They were great builders in 
other ways also. Among the 
most noted examples of 
their work were huge struct- 
ures like the CoHseum, the 
Circus Maximus, the baths, 







THE APPIAN WAY, A ROMAN ROAD 



96 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



How the 
roads were 
used 



The con- 
struction 
of the 
aqueducts 



and the theatres. But the building in which the prac- 
tical makers of an empire especially excelled was the 
structure of roads and aqueducts. As for roads, no 
other countries then had anything but dirt paths; but 
wherever the Romans conquered a district, they placed 
garrisons at important centres and connected them with 
each other and with Rome by well-built roads, so that 
the people of that time could truly say, "All roads lead 
to Rome.'' The heavy blocks of stone used in paving 
were so strong that long sections of the roads still exist 
to-day. 

These thoroughfares served the same purpose in the 
ancient world that railroads do to-day. They helped to 
keep Rome in close touch wdth all parts of her territoiy, 
and made it possible to move troops rapidly to points 
where they were needed. At intervals there were sta- 
tions for relays of horses. In carrying important mes- 
sages, horsemen would ride with desperate speed, hastily 
mounting a fresh horse at each station. In this way a 
letter or important news of any kind could be carried 
hundreds of miles in a single day. Wagons were also em- 
ployed to transport state officials, as well as merchants, 
travellers, and their goods. The most famous of all. the 
roads is called the Appian Way. This still exists and runs 
in a south-easterly direction to Brindisi on the eastern 
coast, three hundred miles from Rome. 

77. Roman Aqueducts. — Another striking example of 
the engineering ability of the Romans is their method 
of supplying Rome with water. They were not so 
fortunate as the Greeks in their water supply. The 
Greek cities were amply provided with pure water by 



ROME THE CAPITAL OF AN EMPIRE 



97 




THE AQUEDUCT AT NIMES 



numerous springs and good wells; but the water of the 
Tiber and of the city wells in Rome was not good to drink. 
So the Romans had to bring pure water from the hills at 
a distance. This they did by means of aqueducts, or 
artificial water channels. These the Romans constructed, 
as nearly as they could, in such a way as to have a gradual 
inclination downward from the place where the water 
entered the aqueduct to the place where it was delivered 
for use in Rome. 

In time there came to be fourteen of these magnificent The aque- 
structures which were built of stone. The channel it- "^tchanne 
self was a trough of brick or stone lined with cement 
and covered over, and here the water ran in a steady 
stream, either through the trough or through pipes laid 



98 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



there. When a hill interfered with its course a tunnel was 
made; but when a valley was to be crossed, the channel 
was supported on solid masonry or on arches of stone. 

The greater part of the greater number of aqueducts 
was underground. One or two of the longer ones were 
mainly above ground, but none were altogether without 




CLAUDIAN AQUEDUCT ON THE ROMAN CAMPAGNA 



underground parts. Reservoirs were built in the city 
for -receiving and distributing enormous quantities of 
water which was needed for private houses, public baths, 
ponds, fountains, and so on. Each private house had a 
cistern to receive the water from the reservoir. Promi- 
nent even to-day in the landscape just outside of Rome 
are the ruins of the aqueducts through which water 
flowed into the city hundreds of years ago. 

78. The Greeks Influence the Romans. — ^Having taken 
a rapid survey of the imperial city, we may well note the 
fact that the Romans, in much of their building, came 
under Greek influence. This was true in their private 



ROME THE CAPITAL OF AN EMPIRE 99 

houses as well as in their temples, theatres, gymnasiums, 
and other buildings. They followed the Greek custom 
also of adorning their buildings with statues, paintings, 
urns, vases, and other things of beautiful design and work- 
manship. Lacking the artistic genius of the Greeks, the 
Romans never produced objects of such rare grace and 
beauty as those which adorned the Greek cities, especially 
such cities as Athens, Antioch, and Alexandria. But 
when they conquered Greece they brought back to Rome 
as a part of their immense booty, taken from Corinth and 
other cities, thousands of statues, bronzes, paintings, and 
other works of art. 

Such plunder of Greek cities was most unfortunate for The 
Greece, but to us it seems more like the rescue of a great preT^rve 
legacy which Greece had created and was unable to ^^®^^ ^^ 
hold. The Romans appreciated what they could not 
create, and in beautifying and adorning their magnificent 
buildings and their luxurious palaces and villas they pre- 
served the glory of Greek art and transmitted it to the 
world. 

79. Education and Books. — Great as was the influ- Influence 
ence of Greek art upon the Romans, that of Greek liter- literature 
ature was, perhaps, equally marked. In Rome it became 
the fashion for rich men to study and discuss Greek plays, 
Greek philosophy, and Greek poetry, and to have the best 
Greek books in their libraries. Many of these books came 
with booty after conquest, and many also from mer- 
chants and traders. After a time all men of even modest 
learning were expected to speak and write in Greek. In 
this way many Greek words crept into the Latin language, 
which, in turn, has passed them on to us. 



Influence of 
Greek 
slaves and 
teachers 



100 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



Closer even than their Hterature was the personal con- 
tact with the Greeks themselves. When Rome conquered 
Greece, thousands of the best educated men of that coun- 
try were made slaves and brought to Rome. Many of 




PERISTYLE OF THE HOUSE OP VETTIUS, POMPEII 



them read to their masters from books written by Greek 
historians, poets, and philosophers, and large numbers 
came to be the teachers of Roman boys. Thus they did 
much to spread Greek ideas and ways of living among the 
Roman people. In fact, the Romans found so much that 
was new, strange, and beautiful in the life of the Greeks, 
that they wished their boys to learn the Greek language 
and literature. Hence these studies came to be a neces- 
sary part of the schooling of every well-taught boy. 



ROME THE CAPITAL OF AN EMPIRE 101 

Homer's ^' Iliad" and ''Odyssey" were made regular text- 
books, and were studied not merely for language and 
literature; but also for geography^ history, and religion. 

Before this period of Greek influence the education of Education of 
Roman boys was most practical. Up to the time when boy°°^^° 
children were seven years old, they were trained at home 
by their mothers. Then the boys began going to school, 
but the girls remained at home to be further taught by 
their mothers. On their way to school, which opened be- 
fore sunrise, the boys of well-to-do parents were attended, 
as in Athens, by slaves, called pedagogues (''child teach- 
ers"), who carried their books and writing material for 
them. Their teachers, who were either slaves or f reed- 
men, taught the boys such things as would prepare them 
for the life of the citizen and the soldier. So they not 
only studied reading, writing, and arithmxctic, but also 
learned swimming, riding, and throwing the javelin. 

It was not until the time of Augustus that the Romans Roman 
had much literature of their own. Then historians like ^^^^^^^^® 
Livy and Tacitus, and poets like Virgil, Ovid, and Horace, 
wrote books which helped to make the "Augustan Age" 
famous. Their works have come down to our own time. 
They are studied in our high-schools and colleges to-day, 
and are read with profit and pleasure by students of the 
ancient world. 

The books used in those ancient times were not like Books of 
ours; for we must remember that the people did not have f^es° 
paper as we know it, and that printing had not been in- 
vented. All the books had to be written by hand with 
thick black ink. Papyrus paper was used instead of our 
cotton or wood paper. This was made from the pith of 



102 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



The 
"volume" 



Booksellers 
and their 
books 



a reed-like plant which grew along the Nile River, in 
Egypt. The strips of papyrus were made from six to 
thirteen inches wide, and were glued together, end to end, 
so as to form as long a sheet as was needed for the book. 
The sheet might be ten feet, fifty feet, one hundred feet, or 
much longer, for its length depended 
upon the size of the book. This strip 
was rolled up and unrolled, so that 
instead of calling it a book we should 
properly speak of it as a roll. The 
writing was in fine, clear characters. 
It was in columns running with the 
width of the roll; that is, the roll 
w^hen set on end was in a position 
to be read. 




A ROMAN BOOK 
PAPYRUS ROLL 



This long sheet was fastened at 
each end to a rod of polished ivory or wood, generally 
ending in knobs. Around one of these rods the whole 
sheet was wound like a window-shade and tied with 
thongs. The roll formed a ^'volume," this word being 
derived from a Latin word meaning ^Ho roll." Then a 
stiff label, bearing the title and the author's name, was 
tied to the knobs, and the book was ready for the 
bookseller or the library. 

The booksellers at first made their own copies of the 
books for sale, and kept assistants for more rapid produc- 
tion. These assistants were slaves or paid freedmen. 
Their work was often made easier by dictation, one per- 
son dictating for several scribes at once. The booksellers 
hung the titles of books on the door or on the pillars of 
their shops, and sold their books at moderate prices. 



ROME THE CAPITAL OF AN EMPIRE 103 



THINGS TO REMEMBER 

1. The Romans brought under their control most of the civiHzed 
world and made of it one great empire. 2. In the days of the: 
empire the Romans made pleasure-seeking one of their chief aims,, 
the principal centres of amusement being the theatre, the amphi- 
theatre, the circus, and the bath. 3. It is believed that after the 
conquest of Gaul slaves made nearly one-half the population of 
Rome. 4. The freemen were mainly divided into the very rich 
and the very poor. 5. The Senate was now unfit to govern be- 
cause the senators had become weak and corrupt. It finally 
yielded to Csesar as its superior and head of the Roman world.. 
6. The Greeks, through their buildings, their works of art, and 
their literature, had large influence over the Romans. 7. In the 
time of Augustus the Romans themselves had historians and poeta 
which helped to make the "Augustan Age" famous. 

TO THE PUPIL 

1. Point out on the map the countries in Europe that were included in 
the Roman Empire. 

2. What was the Coliseum ? The Circus Maximus ? 

3. Into what classes were the people of Rome divided ? 

4. In what way had the Senate become unfit to govern ? Why ? 

5. What was the Forum ? 

6. What was the purpose of a Roman triumph ? 

7. What were the principal uses of the Roman roads ? 

8. In what ways did the Romans come under the influence of the Greeks? 
Explain in particular the influence of Greek slaves and teachers. 

9. Tell what you can about the education of a Roman boy. 

10. How did the books of ancient times differ from ours in the way they 
were made ? 



104 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



CHAPTER X 
EOME AND CHRISTIANITY 



Early 

Roman 

worship 



Roman 
worship and 
the welfare 
of Rome 



Some Ro- 
OLan deities 



80. Roman Religion. — In their religion, as in their art 
and Hterature, the Romans borrowed from the Greeks, 
but they thought of their gods in a different way. The 
early Romans, like the Greeks, worshipped spirits, which 
they believed to be all about them. These spirits dwelt 
in rivers, forests, fountains, and like places, and took an 
active part in the life of nature and of man. The Roman, 
however, did not think of his gods and goddesses as per- 
sonal beings to be loved, but rather as forces to be feared. 

He was as practical and straightforward in his religion 
as he was in other matters. If he was true to the gods, he 
beheved, they would be true to him; but he could not ex- 
pect them to favor him and protect him from evil unless he 
duly honored them by proper worship and sacrifice. In 
their worship the Romans had deeply at heart the wel- 
fare of Rome. It was in their intense love of country that 
they showed real and deep religious feehng. We may 
almost say that their patriotism was their religion. 
Devotion and loyalty to Rome were devotion and loyalty 
to the gods of Rome. 

One of the great Roman deities was Vesta, goddess of 
the hearth. In early Roman days the hearth was the 
centre of the house, and the family in gathering about it 
for meals made each meal an act of worship. In the tem- 
ple of Vesta at Rome, a fire was kept continually burn- 
ing, as if the whole people were one great family. A 
spark of fire, which we can now strike so easily, was to 



ROME AND CHRISTIANITY 



105 



them a sacred thing. Every family worshipped also the 

Lares, which were ancestral spirits, and the Penates, which 

were gods of the household. Other important Roman 

deities were Jupiter, the supreme ruler of the earth. and 

sky; Juno, his wife; Pluto, the god of the underworld; 

Neptune, the god of the sea ; Venus, 

the goddess of love and beauty; and 

Minerva, the goddess of wisdom.. 

8i. The Emperor Augustus and One-man 

.,., -. rule in 

His Worship as a God. — Although, Rome 

as noted elsewhere, Julius Caesar by 
his army had made himself master 
of Rome, he could not protect him- 
self from the revenge of the sena- 
tors, and several of their party mur- 
dered him. For a number of years 
after his death, there were many 
wars among the various factions at 
Rome. But at last (31 B. C.) Csesar's 
grandnephew, who was afterward 
called Augustus, triumphed over all his rivals and estab- 
lished one-man rule forever in Rome. He was called em- 
peror (commander-in-chief) and cam.e to be worshipped as 
a god. His mle was wise, and he gave the Roman world 
such order, peace, and prosperity as it had never had before. 

82. The Beginning of Christianity.— It was during his jesus^ 
reign of peace throughout the Roman world that Jesus Bethlehem 
was born in Bethlehem. This was a quiet little town in 
the Roman province of Judaea. A province was a con- 
quered country outside of Italy. At the time when Jesus 
was crucified at Jerusalem, Tiberius was the Roman em- 




JUNO 



ROME AND CHRISTIANITY 107 

peror and Pontius Pilate was the governor sent out by 
Rome to the province of Judsea. 

The followers of Jesus Christ were called Christians, Paul and 
and one of the most noted of the early Christians was the chnsSs 
Apostle Paul. He was a Jew with a Greek education, 
born in Tarsus (a city of Asia Minor), and was a Roman 
citizen. You may remember that when Paul was brought 
to trial in Judsea, he claimed that as a Roman citizen it 
was his right to appeal to Rome for a special trial. To 
Rome, then, he was sent in chains as a prisoner; and at 
Rome he was later put to death because he w^as a Christian. 

83. The Persecution of the Christians. — Paul was not 
alone in suffering death on account of his religious faith. 
Many of the early Christians were killed, and all were 
treated as pubhc enemies. This seems cruel to us, but 
the Romans thought they had good reasons for getting 
rid of men and women whom they deemed dangerous. 

One reason was that the Christians held then* rehgious The Chris- 
serviccs in secret. The Romans did not hke this, because religious ser- 
they believed the Christians were doing evil things which secret^ 
they did not wish to have made known. The Romans also 
believed that the Christians had formed secret organiza- 
tions. But secret organizations were forbidden by the 
government, for it was thought that they might plot 
against the state. Hence the Christians were punished 
as pubhc enemies. 

Moreover, the Christians would not take part in the The chris- 
worship of the emperors. ^' There is but one God," they to worship 
declared, "and we will worship Him alone. We can- ^^^q^' 
not worship the emperors, nor can we worship any of 
the Roman gods." When we remember that the Ro- 



108 



. AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



Some refuse 
to join the 
army 



Cruel treat- 
ment of the 
Christians 



Saint Peter 
and 
Saint Paul 



mans honestly believed that unless the gods were duly 
honored and worshipped the empire would be destroyed, 
and that denying the divinity of the emperor was the same 
as denying his right to reign, we can easily see why they 
regarded the Christians as dangerous to the state. 

The Romans had no doubt, therefore, that the Chris- 
tians were public enemies. But many of the Christians 
gave further proof of their disloyalty, as the Romans 
thought, by refusing to join the army. "It is wrong to 
fight," said some Christians. "You are unwilling to de- 
fend and protect your country, '^ was the angry retort of 
the Romans. 

Thus we see that the Romans really thought that the 

Christians were dangerous to the state. So they put them 

to death, torturing them in all sorts 

of cruel and shocldng ways. Seme 

were tied up in the skins of anim.als 

and tossed into the arena to be torn 

to pieces by hungr}^ wild beasts. On 

one occasion the Emperor Nero 

opened his gardens to the people, and 

the torches he used to light up the 

gay scene at night were the burning 

bodies of Christians, which had been 

NERO covered with tar and fastened to 

crosses. 

Among those who suffered death under the Emperor 

Nero were Saint Paul and Saint Peter, both of whom are 

said to have been put to death on the same day. Paul, 

being a Roman citizen, was killed by a sword, and Peter 

was crucified on a spot near Nero's gardens. A beautiful 




ROME AND CHRISTIANITY 



109 








church, called St. Paul's, outside the walls of Rome, is 
supposed to mark the spot where Paul died; and you 
perhaps know that St. Peter's Church in Rome is a very- 
great and very grand church, probably the most famous 
in the world. 

84. The Catacombs. — During this time of persecution What the 
in Rome the Christians had to worship in secret places, are 
The most noted of these w^ere the Catacombs. They are 
underground passages 
two and one-half to five 
feet broad and eight feet 
high, stretching for about 
three miles under that 
part of the city which lies 
on the west bank of the 
Tiber. The passages 
branch off in different di- 
rections and are cut one 
under another, making at 

least three different levels, or ^^ stories, " so that there is 
a perfect labyrinth of them. Here in stone niches hewn 
in the rock that formed the side of the passages were 
buried the early Christians. Sometimes as many as eight 
niches were cut one above the other. Near the little 
chambers where rested the bodies of martyrs, their friends 
liked to be buried. Funeral services also were held in 
these chambers^ by the light of the old Roman lamps. 

When the Catacombs were begun, there w^as no need of 
secrecy about them, for the Roman always respected burial 
places. It was only after the persecutions that the usual 
doors were closed and entrance was made in secret ways. 



A PORTION OF A WALL IN THE CATACOMBS, ROME 



:!10 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



The fact that it is thought that from one to six milHon 
bodies were buried in the Catacombs shows in what num- 
bers people had adopted the Christian faith. In its early- 
days the progress of Christianity had been slow and un- 
noticed. The number of Christians was small; and con- 
sisted mostly of workingmen and slaves coming from the 
lowest classes of society and attracting but little notice 
from those in high places. 

When it first came to the attention of the great, they 
tried to crush it. But with the weakening of Roman 
character, which we have observed, the Roman nation 
became weaker and weaker, for a strong and good nation 
is made only of strong and good men. The belief in the 
power of Jupiter and the other gods was dying out. This 
left room for the Christian faith to spread more and more 
rapidly until, by the middle of the fourth century, it had 
largely taken the place of the old worship. 

85. The Emperor Constantine and Christianity. — 
Early in the fourth century the Emperor 
Constantine had allowed the Christians to 
worship freely. Later he went still further 
and made Christianity the national religion 
(325 A. D.), and was himself baptized as 
a Christian. You will remember the name 
of this man, who was the first Christian 
Emperor, if you keep in mind that it was 
for him that Constantinople was named. 
Its old name was Byzantium; but he 
rebuilt this ancient Greek city and made 
it, instead of Rome, the capital of the 




CONSTANTINE 



empire. 



ROME AND CHRISTIANITY 111 

86. Things We Have Learned from the Greeks and the The Greeks 
Romans. — From the foregoing chapters it is evident that Se Romans 
the genius of the Romans was veiy different from that Practical 
of the Greeks. For example, both were great builders, 
but the buildings of the Greeks were graceful and beauti- 
ful, because the Greeks were artistic, while those of the 
Romans were massive and imposing, because the Romans 
were practical. 

The Greeks were as patriotic as the Romans; but their Greek 
patriotism was narrowed to their own little city-states. narrow^°^ 
Only in the presence of an overwhelming danger like the 
Persian invasions, which threatened to bring disaster on 
all alike, could they sink their jealousies for the time and 
join one another in the common cause. The danger over, 
they fell back at once into their old-time habits of caring 
for none but their own community. 

To the Romans is due the great work of building up Roman 
the nation. This they were able to do because they had troad*^^™ 
a broader patriotism than the Greeks; that is, they had 
interests in common with a wider circle of people than 
those living close beside them. They also had the power 
to organize one great state by binding together many 
tribes, peoples, and countries. 

Both systems have been of priceless worth to men. Both sys- 
The Athenians taught the world the great value of pr^lieL 
democracy, which meant giving to every free man a ^3"^*^^ 
share in the government by allowing him a part in 
making the laws. The Romans taught the great value 
of law, order, and organization. By means of these they 
established their empire. 

Thus did the Greeks and Romans find out ways of 



112 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 

American living and of doing things that are a valuable part of 
in Greec? American life to-day. We still use some of their forms of 
and Rome j^^^ ^^^ government; we still imitate their architecture 
and their engineering; we still enjoy their works of art 
in our museumS; our public buildings, our schools, and 
our homes; and we still study in our high-schools and 
colleges, as well as read by our firesides, books written 
by their poets^ their historians, and their philosophers. 



THINGS TO REMEMBER 

1. From the stand-point of the Romans, devotion and loyalty to 
Rome were devotion and loyalty to the gods of Rome. 2. During 
the peaceful rule of the Emperor Augustus, Jesus was born in 
Bethlehem. 3. The Romans bitterly persecuted the Christians 
because, as the Romans declared, the Christians were dangerous 
to the state. 4. But later the Christian faith spread rapidly until 
the Emperor Constantine made Christianity the national religion. 
5. The Greeks were artistic and the Romans practical; Greek 
patriotism was narrow, Roman patriotism broad; the Greeks 
built up the city-state, the Romans the nation. 6. There were 
many American beginnings in Greece and Rome. 

TO THE PUPIL 

1. How did the Romans connect their worship with the welfare of 
Rome ? 

2. How did there come to be one-man rule in Rome ? 

3. Where was Jesus bom, and in whose rule ? 

4. Who were the Christians, and why were they persecuted ? 

5. What were the Catacombs, and how were they used ? 

6. Why was the progress of Christianity at first slow ? When was it 
made the national religion ? 

7. What things have we learned from the Greeks and from the Romans ? 

8. Name as many as you can of American beginnings in Greece and 
Rome. 



THE MIDDLE AGES AND WHAT WE HAVE 
LEARNED FROM THEM 



CHAPTER XI 
THE GERMANS 

87. The Romans and the Germans. — ^You will remem- German 
ber that after Gsesar had defeated Ariovistus and his J^e Roman^ 
German followers in Gaul, and had driven them back frontier 
into their own land, he built a massive bridge across the 
Rhine, hoping ,.. ^ _^_^._ 

that it would aid r^""' ^-^^^^^^^^0^'^'' ^ '^L<^ . -j" 
the Romans in 
keeping the Ger- 
mans out of 
Gaul. But, even 
with the aid of 
the bridge, the 
Roman legions 
that guarded the 
Rhine and the 
Danube could 

not hold back the restless barbarians. Many times, 
during the next few hundred years, invaders crossed the 
frontier in wave after wave, and few ever went back, 
most of them finding new homes within the empire. 

Thinking to put an end to these inroads, the Romans The Romans 
sometimes themselves became the invaders. But they conquer the 
could not conquer their rude foes to the north, nor were ^®"^^s 

113 




OLD ROMAN BRIDGE OVER THE MOSELLE, GERMANY 



114 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



The circular 
cabin 



they able to push the boundaries of the empire beyond 
the Rhine and the Danube. To make these boundaries 
more secure, Germans were taken into the Roman le- 
gions to keep out their fellow-Germans. Caesar was the 
first to do this, and often in later times whole tribes with 
their chiefs were thus enhsted and settled along the fron- 
tier. Why these world conquerors w^ere always baffled 
by a horde of rude barbarians, unskilled in the arts of 
war, is a question we may well ask. To discover the 
reason, w^e must know something of the men themselves 
and their ways of living. 

88. The Germans in Their Homes. — Suppose that in 
those far-off days we had wandered into one of the track- 
less forests of 
Germany. After 
picking our way 
through thicket 
and sw^amp, we 
might have 
found ourselves 
on the edge of a 
clearing of con- 
siderable size. In 
its centre stands 
a cabin, cir- 
cular in shape, 
with a thatched roof from which smoke is rising through 
The German a hole in the top. Lifting our eyes from this primitive 
dwelling, we notice at a distance a tall, strong-looking 
man with long flaxen hair and blue eyes, wearing a 
mantle of wool — ^unless he happens to be fur-clad. He 








EARLY GERMAN AND GALLIC HABITATIONS, DRAWN FROM A 
PHOTOGRAPH OF THOSE CONSTRUCTED FOR THE PARIS 
EXPOSITION OF 1889 



THE GERMANS 



115 



is the owner of the hut, and is just returning from a 
hunt. Waiting for him at the door is his wife, wearing a 
purple mantle or cloak, just like the man's except that 
it is of linen. Her arms are bare from the shoulder. 
Not far off are the children, playing at battle. They too 
are thinly clad for this cold chmate; but they are brought 
up to be hardy warriors, and are never indulged. 

Dinner is ready for the hungry himter, who eats at a The hunter 
table by himself and consumes a great quantity of veni- ^* ^^^ 
son, milk thickened with acid, and fruit. 
His drink is beer of his own brewing and 
made from grain raised on his own land. 
To-morrow, if there is no hunt and he is 
not called to battle, he will get up late, 
take a warm bath, and then spend the rest 
of the day in eating and sleeping. It may 
be that many days and weeks, one after 
another, will run on in the same way; for 
when he is not hunting or at war, he does 
little but sleep and eat. Very often he 
drinks too much of the home-made beer; 
often to while away the time he plays 
games of chance with his neighbors; for he is too igno- 
rant to find amusement in other ways. He has no books 
of any kind, and could not read them if he had. 

But his wife is far from idle. She has the care of the The village 
house and children, as well as the tilling of the land. Sniiy^ 
The master of the house owns his own lot and holds a 
share in the common pasture-land of the village. By 
village we must not think of a street with rows of houses; 
for each dwelling stands by itself, on any spot which has 




ANOTHER TYPE OF EARLY GER- 
MAN AND GALLIC HABITATION, 
DRAWN FROM A PHOTOGRAPH 
OF ONE CONSTRUCTED FOR THB 
PARIS EXPOSITION OF 1889 



116 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



The meeting 
of freemen 



The proud 
spirit of the 
warrior 



The chief 
and his 
body-guard 



attracted the owner, and is surrounded by a plot of 
ground. There is not a store or pubHc building of any- 
kind in this village. Every family gets its own food as 
well as it can; the wife, children, old men, and slaves 
raising the barley and wheat, while the husband does the 
hunting and fishing. 

89. The Assembly of Freemen. — If we wish to see 
the better side, of the master of the household, we must 
go with him to battle; for since war is his chief business, 
it is as a warrior that he shows his strongest virtues. 
Before his summons to war, will probably come a call to 
the assembly of freemen. In an open plain he and his 
comrades sit down together, fully armed, each with a 
bright-colored shield and a short, narrow-bladed spear. 
Here they discuss questions bearing upon the welfare of 
the tribe. 

00. The German Warriors Freedom-Loving, Loyal, 
and Brave. — In all public matters, such as their choice 
of a leader, the men of the tribe stand on an equal foot- 
ing; for they are men of proud spirit, with a keen sense 
of personal honor, and they love independence and free- 
dom. When the leader of the meeting puts a question, 
the men shout if their vote is ^^no," and clash their spears 
if it is ^^yes." To-day there is a loud clashing, for they 
have been asked v/hether they wish to make war on a 
neighboring tribe, and they are eager to fight. 

Having voted for war, they next choose a strong, 
brave warrior and hunter for their chief. Then each 
chieftain, or head of a clan, gathers his followers about 
him. The flower of these is chosen for a special body- 
guard. It is an honor to belong to one of these body- 



THE GERMANS 



117 



guards, which are composed of youths of the finest fam- 
ihes and with a great reputation for bravery. Their duty 
is to protect their leader, and never to leave him. 

Having once chosen a chief to their liking, they must Loyalty and 
be loyal to him even to death. Cowardice, indeed, is ^^^^®^ 




RETURN OF VICTORIOUS GERMANS FROM A FIGHT WITH THE ROMANS 



looked upon as worse than death, while to die on the 
battle-field is something greatly to be desired; for after 
death the brave go to Valhalla, the warrior's paradise. 
Nor must the chief let his followers outdo him in bravery, 
or he will lose their respect and bring shame upon him- 
self for all time. He is loyal to the tribe; his men are 
loyal to him. To desert a leader or to lose a shield in 
battle is a lasting disgrace. 

When a boy reaches manhood, he is brought into the The young 
solemn assembly of freemen and presented with a spear ^^"^°^ 
and a shield. He is thus made one of the defenders of 



118 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



The women 
brave and 
warlike 



Their gods 
and heroes 



his tribe. But he does not become a full-fledged warrior 
until he has killed his man. 

Even the women have a warlike spirit. They go with 
the men to war, and in the hour of battle they dress 
woundS; give food to the fighterS; urge them on to vic- 
tory, and; if they see them giving w^ay, sometimes even 
rush in and fight. Such brave women were held in high 
esteem by their warrior husbands, who sought their ad- 
vice on all matters of importance. In their respect for 
women, these barbarians were far in advance of the 
civilized nations whom they supplanted. 

91. German Gods and Heroes. — But it is in the 
beautiful myths and legends of these early races that we 

find most clearly outlined the vir- 
tues they respected and the re- 
wards they longed to possess. 
Like the Greeks and Romans, they 
had many gods and heroes. In 
name and character and in the 
form of worship they received, 
however, these w^ere quite differ- 
ent from the Greek and Roman 
deities. In the first place, the 
Germans built no temples to their 
gods. Their only churches were 
sacred groves presided over by 
priests. Here the people wor- 
shipped Wotan, the greatest of 
their gods; Thor, god of the thun- 
der, Wotan's son ; and all the spirits of the woods and 
air and fields and streams, the great objects of nature 



i^^^M' 




IMPERSONATION OF THE GOD WOTAN 
THE OPERATIC STAGE 



THE GERMANS 



119 



such as the sun and moon and stars, and the earth and 
the mysterious thing called fire. 

Wotan was the god of war. His dwelling-place was Wotan and 
Valhalla, or ^Hhe hall of the slain.'' Here dwelt with ^^^^^^ 
Wotan chosen heroes who had perished in battle, and now 
spent their time feasting and fighting in his service. In The Vaikyne 
Valhalla dwelt also the Valkyrie, beautiful maidens, who heroes"^'' 
were sent out daily by Wotan, fully armed, to select brave 
warriors for his service. With lightning playing all 

about them and with gleam- 
ing spears, they rode through 
the air upon their flying 
steeds, and at night retiu-ned 
across the rainbow bridge to 
Valhalla, each bearing with 
her a fallen hero. It was his 
hope of this shining reward 
— to serve Wotan in Valhalla 
— that helped the warrior to 
fight so bravely. 

The Germans also had, like The 
the Greeks and Romans, iied^"^^^°" 
stories of heroes and their 
brave deeds. The most 
noted of the hero legends 
are to be found in the NibelungenHed, sometimes 
called the German Iliad. Although it was not written 
until many centuries later, parts of it were perhaps 
sung by the minstrels of those early days, and the 
stories were handed down orally from generation to 
generation. 




SIEGFRIED FUKbli^ 



HIS SWORD 



120 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 

The worth Of these stories Siegfried is the hero; and many thrill- 
and^^good ^^S incidents are told which show the worth of loyalty 
faith a^nd good faith — ^loyalty of friend to friend, of warrior 

to chief and chief to warrior, loyalty to promise and to 
oath, to the gods and to religion. Upon good faith rests 
every triumph, and when faith is broken, misery and 
ruin follow. In this matter of good faith, as well as in 
that of personal freedom, these barbarians were above 
the civilized Greeks and Romans whom they succeeded. 



THINGS TO REMEMBER 

1. The Romans could not conquer the Germans nor were they 
able to push the boundaries of the empire beyond the Rhine and 
the Danube. 2. The men of the German tribes stood on an equal 
footing. They were men of proud spirit, with a keen sense of per- 
sonal honor, and they loved independence and freedom. 3. Loy- 
alty and bravery were cardinal virtues, and cowardice was looked 
upon as worse than death. Even the women were brave and war- 
like. 4. The Nibelungenlied is sometimes called the German Ihad. 

TO THE PUPIL 

1. Imagine yourself in the home of a German family and tell all you 
can about the dress, the food, and the daily life of the hunter and his wife. 

2. Describe the German village. 

3. Who were in the chief's body-guard, and what was their relation to 
liim ? 

4. What did the Germans think of bravery ? Of cowardice ? 

5. Who was Wotan ? Who were the Valkyrie ? What was Valhalla ? 

6. What was the Nibelungenlied and who was Siegfried ? 



THE GERMANS AND THE ROMANS 121 

CHAPTER XII 
THE GERMANS AND THE ROMANS 

92. German Tribes Move Westward and Southward. Why the 
— In the early centuries of the Christian era, these rest- MbS^moved 
less German tribes continued to move westward and ^nd*^^^^ 
southward. They were driven by growing numbers to southward 
seek more and better land; and also by the desire to 
share in the far-famed wealth of the Roman Empire. 
Its fertile plains and splendid cities had long been known 
to them by report through traders, and through their 
own warriors who had served in Roman armies. 

In the third century certain tribes broke through the Attiia and 
barriers of. the west, and made their way to northern * ® ^^ 
Italy, but were there held back by the armies of the 
empire. In the fourth centui^^, however, they were 
urged on by a more pressing need. For the Huns, fierce 
Mongolian tribes originally from north-eastern Asia, who 
had for centuries been working westward, were close upon 
them. Like a tornado they swept everything before 
them. Attiia, their chief, was a terror to all less bar- 
barous tribes, and later became known as the ^'scourge 
of God." 

At this time one of the most powerful of the German The Goths 
tribes was the Goths. A part of them, the Ostro-Goths Romans^^ 
(Eastern Goths), submitted to the Huns. Another 
part, the Visi-Goths (Western Goths), crossed the Danube 
and came into deadly conflict with the Romans. They 
defeated and killed the Roman Emperor Valens at 
Adrianople in what is now Bulgaria, but under his sue- 



122 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



Alaric the 
King of the 
Goths 



Other tribes 
break 

through the 
western 
frontier 



cesser, TheodosiuS;* they settled peacefully in the lands 
he gave them south of the Danube. 

Here they remained quiet for a time, but upon the 
death of Theodosius they rose up against the Romans. 
They made Alaric 
their king. He 
was young and 
strong. Although 
he had been 
trained in the 
Roman legions 
and had twice 
been in Italy, he 
loved better the 
freedom of the 
north and the 
ways of his own 
people. 

First he led 
them into Greece, 
plundering and 
destroying as he 
went, and making 

his name a terror not only in the east, but in the west. 
Meantime other tribes of Germany, pushed by the con- 
quests of the Huns, had broken through the western 
frontier of the Rhine. Some of them turned south into 
Italy, but were starved into submission. Others, among 

* Theodosius, a man of great ability, was known as Theodosius the 
Great. He was the last ruler of the whole empire. Upon his death 
(395 A. D.) it was divided between his two sons. Honorius was Em- 
peror of the West and Arcadius, his brother, was Emperor of the East. 




THE HUNS SWEEPING EVERYTHING BEFORE THEM AS THET 
INVADED EUROPE 



THE GERMANS AND THE ROMANS 123 

them the Burgundians and the Vandals, entered Gaul. 
The Burgundians settled on the upper Rhine, in the 
province which still bears their name, and became allies 
of Rome. The Vandals, after plundering Gaul, crossed 
the Pyrenees into Spain. The Romans never regained 
control of these provinces. 

93. Alaric Advances upon Rome. — After the breaking Alaric 
of the western frontier, Alaric took courage to advance ^^°^*^® 
upon Rome. He believed that he was 
specially called to do this; for as he was 
passing a sacred grove, he had heard 
a voice saying over and over again, 
^^ Proceed to Rome and make that city 
desolate." The words kept ringing in 
his ears until at last he seemed to have 
no other choice. 

Taking their women and children 
with them, according to the custom of 
barbarian nations, the Goths marched 

westward, ravaging the land as they went. After many The Goths 
defeats and the loss of many warriors, they crossed the Rome^^®^ 
Alps and arrived at the very gates of Rome. The Goths 
laid siege to the city. Day after day they lay encamped 
before it, and daily the Romans watched for aid from 
the Emperor at Ravenna which he had made his capital. 
It never came. There was no food. Finally a plague 
fell upon the starving people. 

Then the Romans sent an embassy to Alaric, and with Alaric and 
much bravado said they were not afraid of him, and ® ^^ ^^^^ 
would all come out and fight him unless he would make 
fair terms. But Alaric, knowing how helpless they were. 




124 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



laughed loudly and answered with a Gothic proverb, 
"Thick grass is easier mowed than thin.'' ^^What, 
then, are your terms?" they asked. ^'I demand all your 
gold; your silver, your movable property, and your 
slaves," was the haughty answer. Dismayed by these 
words, the Romans then asked, ^^If you take all these 
things, what do you leave to us?" "Your lives," was 
The ransom the gruff answer. But when^ later on, a body of sena- 
tors came to Alaric to plead for easier terms, it was 
agreed that the Romans should give as a ransom five 
thousand pounds of gold, three thousand pounds of 
silver, four thousand silk tunics, three thousand hides 
dyed scarlet, and three thousand pounds of pepper. The 
terms of the ransom show that the barbarians were 
aheady acquiring a taste for Roman luxuries. 

94. Alaric Captures and Plunders Rome. — Then Ala- 
ric, with this immense booty, marched northward till 
he reached the fertile lands of northern Italy. Here 
he wished to remain and settle with his followers as the 
allies of Rome. Instead, therefore, of seizing the lands 
already his by conquest, this barbarian conqueror asked 
that they be allotted to his people by the Emperor. 
When the Emperor Honorius stupidly refused, Alaric 
offered to furnish militaiy aid to Rome if he could have 
provisions and some land. The Roman Emperor dallied 
and broke promises. Alaric marched back to Rome, 
but once more spared the city, hoping to make terms. 
Finally, about two years after the first siege of Rome, his 
patience worn out by delays, Alaric in deadly earnest 
appeared with his army before the city for the third 
time, and captured it with little or no opposition. 



\5 k 



L 



^ 



SQ 



4 



.V'^. 



T>^ 



">s, 



i K> 



i^<3 



^ 



^ 




< t° 



S s2 



THE GERMANS AND THE ROMANS 



125 



For three days Rome was given over to the plunder- Marie's 
ing barbarians, but the sacred buildings and all who ^^^^ 
sought refuge within their walls were spared. Then 
Alaric marched down to the southern coast of Italy. 




ALARIC AND HIS FOLLOWERS ENTERING ROME 



Before he could carry out his further plans of conquest, 
however, he suddenly died. That the Romans might not 
find and dishonor his body, it is said that the current 
of a river was turned aside and a grave dug in the bed. 
Here they laid their brave leader, surrounding his body 
with treasures. The captives who had dug the grave 
were then killed, lest they should at some time reveal 
the secret. After Alaric 's death, his people went north- 
ward into southern Gaul, where they settled and later 
extended their rule into Spain. 

The capture of Rome by barbarians (410) was one of 



126 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



Why the 

Romans 

failed 




Why the 
Germans 
succeeded 



the most astounding events of history. The marvel is 
not that a noble city had been pillaged and plundered, 
but that Rome, the centre of the world and for six hun- 
dred years the ruler of nations^ had timidly given way to 
these barbarian hordes. 

95. Why the Germans Succeeded in Conquering the 
Romans. — ^Yet the simple fact is that the Romans failed 
because they had become unfit to carry forward the work 

they had done when they 
were strong and sturdy 
men. Since the days of 
Augustus their power as 
a nation had been weak- 
ened through increasing 
luxuiy and self-indul- 
gence. And while the 
Romans were growing 
weaker, the restless barbarian hordes north of the Danube 
were increasing in numbers and in power. They knew 
nothing of ease and comfort. In their hard struggle as 
hunters and warriors in the forest wilds of Germany they 
had become manly, self-reliant, and masterful. As we have 
seen, many thousands of them were serving in Roman 
armies as hired soldiers, for the ease-loving Romans were 
no longer willing to endure the hardships of war. Many 
thousands more, also, were slaves and freedmen on the 
estates of wealthy Roman nobles. Under these condi- 
tions the Germans had learned much about the life of 
the Romans, had ceased to fear them, and desired to get 
control of what the Romans were not strong enough to 
hold. 



fT£^^^^^^' 



EUINS OF A ROMAN IMPERIAL PALACE AT TREVES, GERMANY 



THE GERMANS AND THE ROMANS 127 

Before the close of the fifth century (476); the last 
Roman Emperor of the west was deposed. Not a prov- 
ince in western Em'ope was then Roman; the ruling 
power had come into the hands of the Germans. Surely 
the old reign of Italy was passing away, and a new Europe 
was about to take its place. 

96. A New Europe under the Control of the Ger- 
mans. — ^This new Europe was to be under the control 
of these vigorous men from the north. As we shall see, 
it took them many hundred years to appreciate the 
best things that had been done by the Greeks and the 
Romans. Therefore they did not stop with over-throw- 
ing the Roman Empire. They also destroyed many 
citieS; and in some places swept away nearly all that 
Rome had done. But they preserved more than they 
destroyed; and added to what the Greeks and Romans 
had done many ideaS; customs, and ways of living which 
have made life richer for us all. They were in fact both 
the successors and the heirs of the Romans, and as such 
took up the work of the Tiliddle Ages, which began in the 
fifth century and ended in the fifteenth. 



THINGS TO REMEMBER 

1. The German tribes were driven by growing numbers to seek 
more and better land, and also by a desire to share in the wealth 
of the Roman Empire. 2. The Goths, one of the most powerful 
of the German tribes, defeated the Romans. 3. In 410 Alaric, 
the king of the Goths, captured Rome. 4. The Romans failed be- 
cause their power as a nation had been weakened through increas- 
ing luxury and self-indulgence. 5. The Germans succeeded not 
only because they had been increasing in numbers, but also because 



128 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 

they were manly, self-reliant, and masterful. They were the suc- 
cessors and heirs of the Romans. 6. The Middle Ages began in 
the fifth century and ended in the fifteenth. 

TO THE PUPIL 

1. Give three reasons why the German tribes moved into the Roman 
Empire. 

2. Who v^as Alaric ? What kind of man was he, and what kind of train- 
ing had he received ? 

3- Tell what you can about the following: the siege of Rome; Alaric 
and the embassy; the ransom. 

4. Why did Alaric capture Rome ? 

5. Explain why the Romans failed and why the Germans succeeded. 

6. In what ways were the Germans unlike the Romans ? 

7. What is meant by a new Europe under the control of the Germans ? 
When did the Middle Ages begin and when did they end ? It is worth 
your while to remember these dates. 

8. Are you making constant use of your maps ? 



CHAPTER XIII 
ALFRED AND THE ENGLISH 

The Franks 97. The Franks in France. — We have seen how, early 
in the fifth centuiy; certain German tribes broke through 
the Roman frontiers into Gaul, swept southward into 
Italy; and captured Rome, the capital of the empire. 
Toward the close of the same centuiy, other tribes of 
Germans, the Franks, who had been dwelling on the 
middle and lower Rhine, began the conquest of north- 
ern Gaul. Under the leadership of Clovis, one of the 
most powerful chiefs of that time, they conquered the 
last of the Roman territor}^ in Gaul, which greatly in- 
creased their power, and then extended their sway over 
the German tribes who had occupied the east and south. 



ALFRED AND THE ENGLISH 



129 



Thus the Franks brought under one dominion nearly 
all that country now known by the name of France. 
Clovis adopted the faith of the Christians, and hence- 




CHARLEMAGNE BEING CROWNED EMPEROR AT ROME 



forth the Frankish government went hand in hand with 
that of the church, a union which was of great value to 
both. 

The greatest successor of Clovis was Charlemagne, who charle- 
came three centuries later. He added to his realm most of ^^^ Ws 
what is now Germany and the western half of the Empire ^°^^ 
of Austria, and in the year 800 was crowned Emperor at 



130 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



Rome. He is one of the most famous men of all time. 
We should remember him not only as a great warrior and 
statesman, but also as a lover of learning who started 
many schools and did much for education in his day. 
Although his empire did not last as a whole, out of it 
grew the feudal system, of which we shall speak later, 
and the union of the German and Roman ways of living. 
98. German Tribes Invade and Conquer Britain. — 
We have now to learn that still other German tribes, 
some from Denmark and some from northern Germany^ 
invaded and conquered Britain. These were the Angles, 
Saxons, Jutes, and Danes, the Angles being the tribes 
from which England (Angleland) at a later day received 
its name. 

After the Romans withdrew their armies from Britain 
in the early part of the fifth century, it was invaded by 

the Picts from Scotland, the 
Scots from Ireland, and bands 
of Saxon pirates from the 
/^►r« ^ mi coast of Germany. The Brit- 

ons first appealed to Rome 

p"'- ^ ' "/• ' 11 r--— ^^^ ^^^' "^^^ Rome was too 

busy protecting herself from 
the Goths. Then they turned 
to the Germans. Under two 
leaders, Hengist and Horsa, 
a band of Jutes landed at 
the island of Thanet in 449. 
After helping the Britons to overcome their enemies, they 
decided to remain and conquer the country, and in this 
conquest the Angles and Saxons took part. These tribes 




A BIT OF STONEHENGE. THE EARLIEST ARCHI- 
TECTURAL, MONUMENT IN BRITAIN 



ALFRED AND THE ENGLISH 



131 



The 

destructive 

Germans 



came from the region which hes between the Baltic and 
the North Seas^ and includes Denmark and the states ot 
north-western Germany. 

99. What the German Tribes Destroyed in Britain. — 
Since these German tribes lived far to the north, they 
had not come under the influence of the Romans as had 
the tribes further to the south, and therefore were not 
so far advanced in the 
arts of living. On that 
account they were more 
destructive than their 
fellow-tribes. They laid 
waste citieS; burned 
country mansions and 
splendid Roman palaces, 
and murdered, enslaved, 
or drove out of the land 
many of the people. Nor did these pagan warriors have 
any regard for sacred buildings ; for they burned to ashes 
Christian churches, and drove off or slaughtered monks 
and priests. Wherever they went, in fact, during the 
first one hundred and fifty years of their stay in Britain, 
they put an end to Christianity. 

100. Christianity in Britain. — How large a footing the The Druids 
Christian faith had gained in Britain during the stay of 

the Romans is uncertain. We know that when they 
conquered Britain they found the people there under 
the sway of priests called Druids, who worshipped in 
oak groves and offered human sacrifices. We know 
also that, on account of the bitter opposition of the 
Druids, the Romans destroyed them. Christian mis- 




SAXON SHIPS 



132 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



The invading 
Angles and 
Saxons 



Gregory 
and the 
Angle boys 



sionaries in the time of Constantine labored to make 
converts among the natives, but their influence was 
probably not felt much outside the towns and cities. 

In their career of destruction, these Angles and Saxons 
were very different from the other tribes that invaded 

the continent. There the 
invaders adopted the cus- 
tom.s, language, and faith 
of the people they con- 
quered ; but in Britain the 
old civilization was swept 
away, and even the lan- 
guage, Latin and Celtic, 
gave place to that of the 
conquerors. All classes 
spoke the Germanic 
tongue. 

loi. The Coming of 
Christian Missionaries. — 
One bond of union with 
the past and with Europe, 
however, was established by Christian missionaries. A 
pretty story is told of how missionaries from Rome were 
sent to convert these rude German pagans. One day an 
abbot of Rome, named Gregory, saw a group of beauti- 
'ful boys waiting in the market-place of the city to be 
sold as slaves. ^'Who are these children?" asked he of 
the slave-dealer. ^^ Heathen Angles," w^as the reply. 
'^Not Angles but Angels," said Gregory, '^with faces 
so angel-like! From what country do they come?" 
When he found that they came from Britain and were 




THE SAXUN i.- 



ALFRED AND THE ENGLISH 



133 



heathen, he grieved because such fine boys were brought 
up in ignorance and sin. 

102. Augustine and the Monks at Canterbury. — The 

Later on, when Gregory became Pope, he sent to Britain Augusfine 
a monk named Augustine, 
with a band of forty other 
monks, to convert the people 
to the Christian faith. At 
first the monks were afraid 
to go, for people told them 
fearful tales of the English 
barbarians. But Gregory 
would not let them turn back. 
They set sail for Britain and 
landed on the Isle of Thanet 
(597). After a few days. 
King Ethelbert of Kent, 
whose wife was a Christian, 
came to the isle to meet them. 
As he thought they were 
magicians and mio;ht throw a 
speU over him, he and his fol- 
lowers met them in an open field instead of in a building. 
Let us try to picture the scene. Here under the 
branches of a spreading oak are seated King Ethelbert 
and Queen Bertha. Beside the King are his counsellors 
and body-guard, and near the queen are her maids and 
her chaplain. A crowd has gathered to see the royal 
reception of the strange priests from over-seas, and you 
may be sure that little Kentish boys and girls are some- 
where near to see what is going on. 




The royal 
reception 



134 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



An 

interesting 

procession 



The sound of men's voices is heard. Then appears a 
body of priests bearing in front a tall silver cross and a 
banner with a picture of Christ on it. Following them is 
a procession of forty monks in russet robes and cowls, 
headed by a boy singer. They walk slowly, two by two, 
chanting and praying for the salvation of the English 




OLD ROMAN CHURCH OF ST. MARTIN, CANTERBURY 



The King 
gracious to 
the monks 



The 

monks at 
Canterbury 



as they advance. Behind them all is Augustine himself. 
AVhen they reach the assembled English, Augustine sits 
down and preaches the Gospel to the wondering listeners. 

The King is gracious to the new-comers. They may 
remain in the kingdom, he says, and he will see that they 
have a house in Canterbur}^, his capital. He will not 
allow them to be in want, and they may pursue their 
work among his people in peace. This welcome was a 
great encouragement to the weary monks. 

They walked on toward Canterbury and, looking down 
from a neighboring hill, saw in a little meadow crossed 
by a stream an old town surrounded with Roman walls. 
Just outside stood the old Roman church of St. Martin, 



ALFRED AND THE ENGLISH 



135 



which they for a time were to use. The building is still 
standing to-day. Here they had also a monaster}^, and 
lived the quiet, religious life of monks, holding constant 
service to which every one was welcome, and working 
faithfully to convert the people to the Christian faith. 

103. The Spread of Christianity in Britain. — King Thousands 
Ethelbert was one of the first converts to accept the chrisSans 
faith, and soon his example was followed by many others. 
One Christmas day more than ten 
thousand people were baptized. 
Augustine was appointed arch- 
bishop of Canterbury, and down 
to the present time his successors 
as heads of the official English 
church have had the same title. 
In a short time nearly all v/ho 
lived in Kent had become Chris- 
tians, and many converts were 
made in other parts of the island, 
won by the devoted hves of the 
missionaries. 

When Augustine and his monks 
began their work in the south, 
missionaries from the church in 

Ireland and the islands west of Scotland were already Success of 
busy converting the people in the north. They were sio?arilT 
followers of St. Patrick, who had made Ireland a centre ^^ ^^® ^^^^ 
of Christianity after the Celts were driven out of Eng- 
land by the Saxons. Their missionaries were enthusiastic 
and devoted men, and won many converts by their un- 
selfish lives. Monasteries spread rapidly. But it was 




ST. AUGUSTINE 



136 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



The 

monasteries 
as centres 
of religious 
life and 
learning 



The 
Vikings 



The 

Vikings as 
warriors 



the Roman form of Christianity which finally prevailed 
over all England. 

With the Roman monks came Roman literature and 
culture, and the monasteries became centres not only 
cf religious influence, but of learning as well. Those of 
Northumbria were not excelled by any in western Europe. 
It was here that English literature took its start, the 
most famous man of letters of the seventh, and early 
eighth centuries being the English monk Baeda, called 
''The Venerable Bede." 

Although Christianity lost its hold in Britain for a 
time after Augustine's death, his work was so thorough 
that it was never wholly destroyed, and in time the 
Christian faith overspread the entire countr}^ 

104. The Coming of the Vikings. — Britain had not 
seen the last of her German invaders with the coming 
of the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes. In the eighth and 
ninth centuries she was beset by the fiercest, most brutal, 
and least civilized cf any of the barbarian invaders. 
These were the Vikings, or Northmen, bold sea rovers 
who came swarming down from Scandinavia, ^isiting 
the coasts not only of Britain but of all western Europe. 
In later centuries, as we shall see, they sailed even to 
Iceland and Greenland. Fighting and plundering were 
their greatest joy, and they kept Europe in fear for 
generations. 

The Northmen included both Danes and Norwegians; 
but the Danes were the terror of Britain, and it was 
feared that the whole country would fall under their 
sway. They were better trained in fighting, and had 
much more effective weapons, than the other German 



ALFRED AND THE ENGLISH 



13; 



tribes. Not only had they coats of mail; but swords, 
spearS; and powerful axes. 

Their ships w^ere long, light; open vesselS; and moved Viking 
quickl}^ The largest were worked by twenty oarsmen, ^ ^^^ 




REMAINS OF THE VIKING SHIP OF GOKSTAD, AFTER ITS REMOVAL FROM THE 
MOUND WHERE IT WAS FOUND 



and each vessel had a heavy square sail to use in favor- 
able winds. They were painted black, with high prow 
and stern. The prow was carved into the shape of a 
snake's or a dragon's head. Around the bulwarks hung 
the round; painted shields of 
the fighters. TVTien one of these 
black vessels came suddenly and 
swiftly sailing up the river with 
its fierce crew, it struck terror 
to the hearts of the people. 

Year by year their numbers 
multiplied. Swift as the wind, 
at first they made only short 
raids, harrying the coasts. But 
each time they came they went the bow of the viking ship of gokstad, 
further inland, attracted by the 




showing restored steering board oh 
the left, and complete ship above 



138 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



The Vikings 
raid Britain 



The little 
Alfred and 
the book of 
Saxon 
poetry 



The Danes 
harass the 
country 



cultivated lands and prosperous townS; which were once 
more a feature of Britain. They raided York; London, 
and Canterbury, and in time seized the whole country 
north of the Thames. They were about to advance upon 
Wessex, which lay to the south, when finally a leader 
rose up against them. This was King Alfred. 

105. Alfred and the Danes. — Alfred, 
by some considered the best and great- 
est King that England ever had, was 
the youngest child of Ethelwulf, King 
of Wessex and Kent. His mother was 
a noble lady of the race of Cerdic, one 
of the original Saxon invading chiefs. 
Either from her or from the Romans 
— for he spent a part of his boyhood 
in Rome — Alfred learned to love 
knowledge and books. 

This is well illustrated in a pretty 
stoiy which is told of his childhood. When he was only 
four years old, his mother showed him and his brothers 
a book of Saxon poetry. It was a beautiful book, illu- 
minated in brilhant colors, and written by hand, as 
books were in those days. She promised to give it to 
the one who should repeat the poems from memory\ 
The httle Alfred ran away with it to his teacher, and 
soon returned and repeated it to his mother, word for 
word. Even if this stor}^ is not true, it shows how greatly 
famed Alfred was for his desire for knowledge. He was a 
bright,, attractive boy, of winning speech and manners. 

All through his boyhood the Danes were harassing the 
country and terrifying the people; and when at twenty- 




KING ALFRED 



ALFRED AND THE ENGLISH 139 

two years of age he became king (871); he had to give 
his whole time to beating them back. As they were 
ignorant themselves and hated those who sought knowl- 
edge, they sacked abbeys, burned schools and monas- 
teries, and slaughtered the monks. 

Alfred fought nine battles with them. He was de- The Danes 
feated each tim^e, and his army not only became weak, Aifr^e^d 
but lost its courage. Finally, at the beginning of the 
winter, he was forced to retreat into a region of woods 
and swamps. The people thought he was lost. It was 
a long, dreaiy winter for him and his followers. 

In later dr.ys the people were fond of telling stories story of 
of how Alfred spent his time during this trying expe- and%.e 
rience. While these stories may not be true, they help ^^jji^^^^^'^ 
us to see what the people thought of the man who did 
so much to make England a better country. According 
to one of these stories, he once took refuge in the hut 
of a cowherd who knew him, but whose wife did not. 
Seeing his ragged clothing, she thought him of little 
account. She was baking bread before the open fire, 
and told him to watch it while she went out; but he had 
more important matters on his mind. When the woman 
returned, Alfred was sitting in a brown study, with the 
bread burning imder his nose. His reward was a sharp 
scolding for being so stupid, as the woman thought him. 

Another story, popular among the people, reveals Alfred as a 
his ability to play on the harp and sing. He gathered °^"^^^^ 
his comrades into a safe place, disguised himself as a 
minstrel, and went to the Danish camp, where his sweet 
music charmed the warriors. The king heard of his 
ability and called him to the royal tent. Here Alfred 



140 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



overheard the Danish plan of campaign. He sHpped 
away, called his men, and; making a sudden attack on 
his enemies, put them to rout. 

As a fact, however, Alfred spent his winter as a gen- 
eral and statesman should, in gathering, drilHng, and sup- 
phdng his army. This explains to us why he won a \dc- 




KING ALFRED INCITING HIS FOLLOWERS TO REPEL THE INVASION OF THE DANES, 
WHOSE SHIPS HAVE BEEN SIGHTED 



toiy when he met his enemy. As spring came on, he 
gathered his men behind his fortress at Athelney. AMien 
he unfolded his standard, men rejoiced, for many had 
given up him and the kingdom for lost. Many new re- 
cruits, eager to fight under a brave leader, joined his 
army; and although his force was not large, he made a 
sudden and desperate attack on the Danes at Ethandune. 
He drove them to their camp, besieged them for four- 
teen days, and forced them to surrender. 

In the treaty which followed, the Danes agreed to settle 



142 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



down peacefully north of the Thames and to become 
Christians. All England south of the Thames remained 
to Alfred. In fact; as a result of this victoiy^ the English 
and the Danes came gradually to be united as one people. 

1 06. Alfred Improves His Kingdom. — After defeat- 
ing the Danes, Alfred had time to improve his king- 
dom. The laws were ver}^ confused, since each tribe 
had had different ones. So Alfred had all the best laws 
gathered into one book, beginning with the Ten Com- 
mandments, and forced all his people to obey them. 
Another important matter to which he gave much thought 
and time was the building of a fleet of swift war vessels; 
for his experience with the Vikings had taught him the 
great value of ships in warding off invaders. This was 
the beginning of the English navy, which has done so 
much to make that little island-countiy a great world- 
power. 

His great desire, however, now that law and order 
could be kept, was to educate the people. England had 
the most beautiful books in the world at this time, but 
few people could read them except the monks. And 
now that learning had so fallen off during the inroads 
of the Danes, many even of the monks could not under- 
stand Latin. Alfred, therefore, rebuilt the abbeys and 
schools which the Danes had destroyed, and at his court 
established a school for his own children and the children 
of his nobles and bishops and friends. They were taught 
not only to read and write in their own language but to 
read Latin. Wlierever he knew that there were learned 
men, he sent there for them and brought them to his 
court, to teach him and his people. 



Great ' 



ALFRED AND THE ENGLISH 143 

As most of the standard works of that day were in Alfred and 
Latin and Alfred wished his people to have the benefit litllature' 
of them^ he made translations of those he considered the 
most useful, and sent copies to all his bishops. He 
wrote a few books himself and gathered all the English 
ballads into one volume. 

This work of Alfred's was important far beyond the 
help it gave to his own people and time. For it made 
English, which was the language of the common people, 
a language of literature. His translations fixed its form 
and preserved it for succeeding generations. 

Alfred became a powerful ruler and left his kingdom '^Alfred the 
far stronger and far better than he found it. All his 
people loved him, for he was devoted to their welfare. 
Well has he been called ''Alfred the Great." 



THINGS TO REMEMBER 

1. The Franks brought under one dominion all that country 
now known by the name of France. 2. Charlemagne was crowned 
Emperor of Rome in the year 800. He is one of the most famous 
men of all time. 3. A band of Jutes landed in England in 449. 
Wherever the German invaders went during the first one hundred 
and fifty years of their stay in Britain they put an end to Chris- 
tianity. 4. Augustine and forty monks landed in England in 597. 
They had a monastery at Canterbury. 5. Monasteries spread 
rapidly, and in time the Christian faith overspread all Britain. 
6. King Alfred defeated the Danes, who had been harassing the 
country. As a result of his victory over them, the English and 
the Danes came gradually to be united as one people. 7. Alfred 
had all the best laws gathered into one book, made translations 
of standard works, and wrote some books himself. He made Eng- 
lish a language of literature. 



144 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



TO THE PUPIL 

1. From what people did France get its name ? 

2. Who was Charlemagne and when did he live ? 

3. What German tribes invaded Britain ? How did England get its 
name ? 

4. Who were the Druids and what became of them ? 

5. Imagine yourself at the royal reception given to Augustine and his 
monks, and write an account of what took place. 

6. What did these monks do for Christianity in Britain ? 

7. Who were the Vikings ? Describe these vessels and their methods 
of making raids. 

8. Tell the story of little Alfred and the book of Saxon poetry. What 
does this story illustrate ? 

9. Write out as clearly as you can the story of Alfred and the cowherd's 
wife. 

10. What important things did King Alfred do to improve his kingdom ? 
Note especially his work in making English a language of literature. 

11. Now give as many reasons as you can for calling this noble king 
Alfred the Great. 

12. Are you making constant use of the map ? 



CHAPTER XIV 

HOW THE ENGLISH BEGAN TO WIN THEIR 
LIBERTIES 

Rolloand 107. Rollo and the Vikings Invade France. — As we 

Normandy j^ayg already said, England was not the only country 
that suffered from the inroads of the Vikings. France 
was constantly invaded in the same way. One band of 
these warriors, under a leader named Rolf or Rollb, in 
the tenth century seized a part of northern France. 
As the king could not hope to drive them out, he invited 
Rollo to settle down with his men and become his vassal. 
Rollo agreed; and in time this district came to be known 



HOW THE ENGLISH BEGAN TO WIN LIBERTY 145 

as Normandy, and the people were called Normans, a 
contraction of '^Northmen." 

As time passed, many Northmen settled here; and their The 
leaders, the dukes of the Normans, were often as power- fh^Normans 
fill as any king in Europe. One of these we are especially 
interested in because he took such an important part in 

English history. This was 
William, who became Wil- 
liam I of England and is 
know^n as William the Con- 
queror. 

1 08. William, Duke of William's 

. , TVT ^ claim to the 

the Normans, Conquers throne 
England. — When Edward 
the Confessor, King of the 
English, died without leav- 
ing an heir, Harold, the 

WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR O 7 ; 

greatest noble in the king- 
dom, was elected to succeed him. But Wilham, Duke 
of the Normans, who had no good claim to the throne, 
declared that it had been promised to him by Edward; 
and that Harold himself had sworn on the sacred relics 
that he would assist him in getting the crown. 

He made haste to collect an army, sailed to England, wiiiiam, 
defeated Harold at the battle of Hastings, or Senlac, in |^^| ^iJ ^^^ 
1066, and the next Christmas day was crowned king 
in Westminster Abbey. He brought all the people under 
his rule, but promised to let them be just as free as they 
had been under their former kings. Though King of 
the English, he still remained Duke of the Normans. 
In England he, his two sons, and his grandson are called 
the Norman kings. 




146 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



William's 109. The Influence of the Normans upon England. — 

the feudal The influence of the Normans upon England was marked 
system ^^ several ways. In the first place; they were a quick- 

witted and clever people^ the 
most masterful in all Europe. 
They had remarkable power 
of doing things well on a large 
scalC; and this showed itself at 
once. William placed strong 
castles all over the kingdom, 
in which he put vassals loyal 




A SHIP OF DUKE WILLIAM S FLEET WHICH 
TR\NSPORTED TROOPS FOR THE INVA- 
SION OF ENGLAND, FROM THE BAYEUX 
TAPESTRY, A CONTEMPORARY WORK 



The 

building of 
monasteries 
and 
cathedrals 



to himself and sternly exacted 
from them, and from their vas- 
sals in turn, the strictest obe- 
dience. In this way he built up the feudal system in 
England, with a strong central government. The same 
ability showed itself in the building of churches and 
monasteries, which became a great power in the land. 
It was during this period that many of England's great- 
est cathedrals were begun, the Norman style of archi- 
tecture, brought from France, displacing that of the 
earlier Saxon. 




FIGHTING AS PICTURED IN THli BAYEUX TAPESTRY, A CONTEMPORARY WORK 



HOW THE ENGLISH BEGAN TO WIN LIBERTY 147 




ARMOR OF THE TIME OF "WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR 



In yet another way, more gentle but not less perma- 
nent, was the Norman influence felt, and that was m 
language and literature. French became the language 
which the upper 
classes spoke, just 
as Latin was the 
language of the 
church, and only 
the common peo- 
ple in the eveiy- 
day walks of life 
spoke Anglo-Sax- 
on. English hter- 
ature was well- 
nigh forgotten, 
and English 
thought for centuries was fashioned by the French, 
no. The Wicked King John. — One of William's suc- 
cessors was King Lichard I, the Lion-Heart, who as- 
cended the throne in 1189. He was a brave warrior and, 
as we shall see further on, spent much of his time fight- 
ing as a crusader 
m the Holy Land. 
During his ab- 
sence, his wicked 
brother John plot- 
ted to get the 
throne for himself, 
and when Rich- 
ard, on his way 
home from Je- 




Nonnan 
influence in 
language and 
literature 



King John 
plots against 
his brother 



THE NORMAN GATEWAY OP WINDSOR CASTLE 



148 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



A worthless 
and wicked 
king 



ji lawless 
Uing 



King John 
robs soldiers 
and sailors 



rusaleni; was taken prisoner, John thought that now he 
could surely be khig, as he hoped that Richard would not 
be set free. But the English people, at a great sacrifice, 
raised a large sum of money, and bought Richard's freedom. 

After Richard's death John became King of England 
(1199). He was such a worthless and wicked king that 
we feel sorry to think he ever held the 
throne. But if he had been better, 
perhaps the people would not have been 
roused as they were to demand their 
rights. 

John^s wicked deeds were so many 
that we can only mention a few of them. 
We have already seen how he plotted 
against his brother. He showed him- 
self treacherous at another time by 
marrying a young woman who was 
pledged to marry the son and heir of 
one of his own nobles. As this was against the feudal 
law, it brought him into further trouble. 

During John's reign, Philip of France invaded Nor- 
mandy and won it from John. John did not try very 
hard to prevent him from doing this; but when it was 
done, he gathered his army and navy together in Eng- 
land and prepared to fight Philip. AATien all the fleet 
was assembled, and the soldiers had left their homes and 
their work and come to the coast, the King changed his 
mind and sent them all home again. The worst of this 
action was that he made eveiy soldier and sailor pay a 
fine, because they had escaped from going to war. This 
was an act of robbeiy. 




KING RiCHAKD I, THE 
LION-HEART 



HOW THE ENGLISH BEGAN TO WIN LIBERTY 149 




, churches 
^^ also 



He also robbed the He robs the 
churches. He refused 
obey the Pope, and the Pope, 
as punishment; ordered that 
every church in England 
should be closed. The cler- 
g>^men thought they must 
obey the Pope; but when- 
ever they did; John took 
their property from them, 
as well as all the money 
belondno; to their churches. 



chateau gaillard 
normandy, france. one of king 
Richard's castles, once the main 

OUTPOST OF his NORMAN TERRITORY 



the King's outrages must 
leader, the Archbishop of 
at a meeting held in St. 
Paul's, showed them how 
John might be made to 
sign a charter; that is, a 
written statement in 
which he should agree 
that there were certain 
things he could not do, 
and that the people had 
certain rights he could 
not take from them. 

To this the barons 
agreed, and made known 
to John their demands, 
saying that they were 



'to" 
III. 



King John Signs the The need of 
rry, -. a charter 

Great Charter. — ihe barons 

or nobles of England felt that 
not be endured. Acting as a 
Canterbury, Stephen Langton, 




KING JOHN SIGNING MAGNA CHARTA 



150 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



John 
forced to 
sign the 
Great 
Charter 



The 

promises in 
the charter 



What the 
Great 
Charter 
means 
to us 



Henry III 
and Simon 
de Montfort 



ready to fight if necessary. The King was terrified. He 
wished to escape giving the charter^ but he had no army 
to fight the barons, and all the people hated him. Finally 
he yielded; and called a meeting which was held in the 
meadow cf Runnymede, near Windsor, on the Thames 
River. The barons' camp was on one bank, the King's 
on the other, and on an island between were the dele- 
gates who were to discuss the charter. They soon agreed 
upon one, and John signed it. But he did not intend to 
keep his agreement. 

The charter — called Magna Charta (Great Charter)^ 
was long, and contained many promises made by the 
King to the people. Of these, two were very important. 
The first was, that the King should never collect more 
money than was due him without first getting the con- 
sent of the Great Council of barons and knights. This, 
meant, among other things, that he would never again 
fine soldiers and sailors because he decided not to em- 
ploy them. The second promise was that the King would 
never again throw men into prison without showing just 
cause. All who were arrested for wrong-doing must be 
tried in court, as they are in our times, and if they were 
not found guilty they must be set free. The most valu- 
able feature of the charter was that all the rights which 
came to be founded upon it, were for the com.mon peo- 
ple as well as the nobles. It is this which has created 
the democratic freedom of the English-speaking peoples. 

112. The English Parliament. — John's son, Henry 
III, was only a boy when his father died, and until he-, 
was grown up noblemen ruled for him. When at length 
he began to reign for himself, people saw that he was. 
very weak and unfit to govern a growing kingdom. Her. 



HOW THE ENGLISH BEGAN TO WIN LIBERTY 151 



did not like to take advice, and he was constantly chang- 
ing his mind. Finally the barons could endure him no 
longer. They made war on him, and took him and his 
son Edward prisoners. Then their leader, Simon de 
Montfort; ruled in his stead, though he was not called 
king. 

Simon de Montfort's rule was important, for it was he The 
who called the first Parliament. Before this the Great Pariilment 
Council had been attended by the barons and bishops. 
Now not only these 
nobles and clergymen 
were summoned (12G5), 
but also two men from 
each of certain towns 
and two from every 
shire (county). This 
was a long step for- 
ward. It meant that 
the common people 

were to have a share in the government. De Montfort's 
rule was short, however; for the King's son escaped from 
prison, and in a sudden attack Simon de Montfort was 
killed and the barons defeated. 

Edward proved to be a strong and wise King, beloved Edward i 
by his people. His favorite motto was ^^Keep your ParUament 
promise,'' and he always tried to keep his. It was not 
until 1295 that he called a full Parliament such as Simon 
de Montfort's, but it proved to be such a successful way 
of consulting the people that afterward a full Parhament 
became the rule. Thus the people of all classes were 
represented in the government. 







MANOR HOUSE, ACTON BURNEI.L, SHROPSHIRE. BUILT 
FOR THE HOLDING OF THE FIRST PARLIAMENT 



152 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



The people 
gradually 
lose their 
rights 



The 

equality cf 

German 

freemen 



The moots of 
the village, 
the hundred, 
and the 
shire 



The village 
moot the 
beginning of 
the town 
meeting 



An important event in Edward's reign was the renewal 
of the Great Charter^ with special promises in it that the 
King would not take money from the people unless the 
full Parliament was willing that he should. 

113. American Beginnings in Germany and England. 
— This struggle between the King and the barons was no 
sudden thing. For centuries the people had been gradu- 
ally losing their rights while the King had been growing 
in power. To find out how much they had lost and what 
they were tiying to get back; let us look at them as they 
were in the forests of Germany long before they left their 
homes for other lands. 

You will remember that those rugged Germans prized 
their independence as they prized their life; that in their 
meetings each freeman helped to elect the chief who 
should lead him in battle; and that all freemen stood on 
an equal footing when matters affecting the good of the 
people were discussed. Now when the German tribes 
went across the North Sea to England in the fifth cen- 
tury, they carried with them their ways of managing 
their affairs. Each village had its moot, or meetings 
where all the freemen assembled to regulate the affairs 
of the village. A group of villages large enough to fur- 
nish a hundred warriors formed a hundred^ and later a still 
larger group formed a shire. Just as the village had its 
moot to attend to the affairs of the village; so had the 
hundred and the shire each its moot to look after the 
larger affairs of its people. 

But while all the freemen met in the village moot; 
only a small number of freemen from eveiy village were 
elected by the whole body to represent them in the moot 



HOW THE ENGLISH BEGAN TQ WIN LIBERTY 153 



of the hundred and of the shire. In the village moot 
each man had the right to share equally in the govern- 
ment by taking a part in the meeting. This was the 
beginning of that valuable American institution called 
the town meeting, where all the voters of the town come 
together to regulate their local affairs. 

The electing of men in the village moot to represent The moots 
them in the larger moots of the hundred and the shire hundred and 
was the beginning of the American system of represen- {J^^innh^ s^^ 
tative government. In these larger bodies^ as in our ofrepre- 
State legislatures and in our Congress, each voter shared government 
equally in the government, not 
by taking part directly, as in 
the town meeting which is held 
near his home, but by helping 
to elect men to represent him. 
This is the representative s}^s- 
tem which those early Angles 
and Saxons, with a love of fair 
play and a keen sense of indi- 
vidual freedom, made a part of 
the political life of England, just 
as, in later years, Anglo-Saxons 
brought it to our own land. 
The beginnings of much that 
we freedom -loving Americans 
enjoy in our political life to-day 

are to be found in the village moots of Germany and of 
England. 

In the centuries of struggle following the conquest of 
England by the German tribes, the people, as we have 




WESTMINSTER HALL, M^HERE PARLIAMENT 
WAS HELD 



154 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 

The English Seen, lost much of their power. But the kingship always 
and^om^^° remained elective; and finally^ as we have noted, the 
Congress representative system came into full swdng in the Eng- 
lish Parliament, where all classes of people are now 
represented just as all classes are represented in our 
National Congress at Washington. 



THINGS TO REMEMBER 

1. The Vikings invaded France as well as England. A band of 
these seized a part of northern France. After a time this district 
came to be known as Normandy and its people as Normans. 
2. William, Duke of the Normans, was made King of the English 
(1066). 3. The influence of the Normans upon England was 
marked in several ways. 4. King John was so worthless and wicked 
that the barons or nobles of England felt that his outrages must 
not be endured, so they forced him to sign the Great Charter 
(1215). 5. The most valuable feature of the charter was that all 
the rights which came to be founded upon it were for the common 
people as well as the nobles. It is this which has created the 
democratic freedom of the English-speaking peoples. 6. The 
struggle between King John and the barons indicates that for 
centuries the people had been gradually losing their rights w^hile 
the King had been growing in power. When the German tribes 
went across the North Sea to England in the fifth century they 
carried with them their ways of manar^ing their affairs. And you 
will remember that among the German tribes all freemen stood on 
an equal footing when matters affecting the good of the people 
were discussed. 7. The village moot was the beginning of the 
American town meeting; and the moots of the hundred and the 
shire were the beginnings of such representative government as 
we have in our State legislatures and in our National Congress at 
Washington. 



FEUDALISM 155 



TO THE PUPIL 

1. Who were the Vikings and what two countries did they invade ? 

2. Can you explain how William, Duke of the Normans, came to be 
King of the Enghsh ? 

3. Why did he place strong castles all over the kingdom ? 

4. In what ways was the Norman influence upon England marked ? 

5. In what ways did John show himself to be a worthless and lawless 
King? 

6. What is a charter ? Name two very important promises made by 
the King to the people in the Great Charter. 

7. Tell what the Great Charter means to us. You will see from this that 
the barons were doing things which prepared for the greater democratic 
freedom of the English-speaking peoples who were to come after them. 

8. Who was Simon de Montfort and what did he do ? 

9. Do you see clearly how the village moot was the beginning of the 
town meeting in our own country and how the moots of the hundred and 
the shire were the beginning of our representative government ? 

10. In what respect are the Enghsh Parhament and our National Con- 
gress alike ? 



CHAPTER XV 

FEUDALISM: OR, THE LORD, THE CASTLE, 
AND THE KNIGHT 

114. How the Feudal System Began. — After the Ger- Each 
mans got control of affairs in the countries of western Sves°iS^*^ 
Europe, they brought to an end much that had been built °^^ ^^ 
up by the Romans. They swept away many of the cities, 
and failed to keep in repair the superb system of z'oads 
and bridges which had closely connected all parts of the 
empire. As a result travel, and the carrying of letters,, 
messages, and goods, came to be so difficult that in time 
trade between one country and another, or even betweeu 



156 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



one place and another^ often in great measure stopped. 
Each community; therefore; had mainly to hve its own 
life. It raised its own food and used only those things 
which its own people could supply. It also handled 




THE FEUDAL. FORTIFICATIONS, CARCASSONNE, FRANCE, AS THEY ARE TO-DAY 



How each 
community 
was 
governed 



but little money; for there was but little money to be 
had; and the old barter of goods for goods suited the local 
trade fairly well in most things. 

The method of governing the people became equally 
primitive. For since Rome was no longer able to mam- 
tain law and order; and there was no strong central gov- 
erning power anywhere in western Europe; each com- 
munity had to keep order for itself and protect itself 
against danger and violence; just as it had to provide 
the food and other things needed for its daily life. 



FEUDALISM 157 

115. Charlemagne's Empire. — ^There was a brief 
period during the empire under Charlemagne when con- 
ditions were improved. This great leader of the Franks 
in his long reign of nearly half a centuiy (768-814) had 
brought within his vast empire^ as we have seen^ much 
of what is now western Europe, and had ruled it with 
a strong hand. 

But Charlemagne's empire did not last. After his charie- 
death it was broken into so many fragments that such ^pfre ^ 
a thing as the authority of a stron^; central state, like J^^oken into 

^ ° ^ ^ ^ fragments 

that in our own count r}^ to-day _, passed away. In the 
dark and dreadful time of strife and hatred which fol- 
lowed; things went from bad to worse. There was a 
desperate struggle of rival leaders for power, and when 
these leaders were not striving to ward off barbarian 
attacks, they were quarrelling among themselves. 

116. The Rich Land-owner and Personal Service. — The rich 
In the great confusion and disorder of these times, the i^^uier^and 
ownership of land played a large part. The rich land- i^w-giver 
owner was the most powerful man in any rural locality, 

and he became the ruler and law-giver of the people 
who lived on his land. It was his duty to provide some 
way of protecting life and property, and of maintaining Protection 
law and order in the community. To do this, he must ^^^ service 
have men willing to fight for him, men to attend his 
courts of justice, where disputes were settled and wrongs 
righted, and men to do the every-day work of providing 
food, clothing, and the usual conveniences of life. These 
three forms of personal service he could secure by grant- 
ing to various men the use of his land. They needed 
protection; he needed personal service. 



158 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



The cere- 
mony of 
making a 
man a vassal 



If we wish to learn how this exchange of the use of 
land for personal service was brought about, and what 
were the relations between the powerful man who ruled 
and the weaker men who served him, we must study 
the feudal system. This began to take deep root in 
western Europe in the ninth and tenth centuries. 

117. The Lord and the Vassal. — Imagine that you 
are a great land-owner or baron, and that you turn over 
a part of your land to a man to hold and to use for you. 
That land is called a fief, or feud, and the man who re- 
ceives it is called a vassal. In return for the use of the 
land, your vassal promises to fight^ for you, who are now 
his lord, to attend your law court, and under certain 
conditions to pay you money. The fighting may be in 
defence of your castle or in an attack upon your enemies; 
and the payment of money may be for your ransom if 
you are made a prisoner, for the knighting of your 
eldest son, or for the marriage of your eldest daughter. 
In return you, the lord, promise to protect your vassal, 
and allow him to govern as he sees fit all the people who 
live on the land he is to hold and to use. 

The agreement is made in a formal way. The cere- 
mony is an interesting one. The vassal with bare head 
kneels before you, his future lord, places his hands be- 
tween your hands, and repeats these words: "From 
this time forward I will be your man." You, the lord, 
raising your vassal to his feet, give him the kiss of peace, 
and he in turn declares, ^^I will be faithful to you and 
defend you even at the risk of my life.'^ In token of 
the grant of land, you then give him a twig or a clod of 
earth. 



160 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



The 
relation 
between the 
lord and his 
vassal 



William the 
Conqueror 
and the 
land-owners 
of England 



Why men 

became 

vassals 



By such a formal ceremony as this, every lord bound 
himself to protect his vassal, treat him justly , and allow 
him to remain in control of the land as long as he kept 
his part of the agreement and was loyal to his lord. Thus 
the relation between the lord and his vassals was very- 
much like that which we saw existing between the chief 
and his warriors in the German forests. 

ii8. The Theory of the Feudal System. — According 
to the theoiy, as finally worked out by the la^^yers, the 
greatest of all land-owners was the King. He was the 
lord of all the land in his kingdom. Some of his vassals 
were powerful nobles, each of whom had vassals who 
paid homage to him just as he himself paid homage 
to the King. But when William the Conqueror became 
King of England, he compelled all the land-owners, of 
any account, to pay homage directly to himself; and 
in this way he greatly strengthened the royal power in 
England. The abbot, as head of a monastery, might 
also be lord over vassals, and a vassal under a lord. 
William required from each bishop and abbot the same 
homage and feudal service that he would require from 
a noble holding the same land. 

We of to-day also buy protection when we pay taxes to 
the state or the nation. The amount is so veiy small, 
however, that it is no burden, and so peaceful are the 
times that we cannot easily realize the danger and tur- 
moil of those lawless days when every one in the land 
from the lowest to the highest, lived in constant fear of 
being plundered, robbed, or murdered. A violent attack 
by barbarian invaders or even by a neighboring lord 
might come any day without warning. Therefore pro- 



FEUDALISM 



IGl 



tection of life and property was worth all it cost. But 
if the lord was to be the protector of his vassals he must 
have not only men to fight for him, but a stronghold for 
defence. Such he provided when he built his castle. 

119. The Castle. — Let us visit one of these castles, The castle 
which was both a fortress and a dwelling-place, bearing roundLls^' 
in mind that castles differed from one another in many 
of their details. 
As we approach 
we catch our first 
glimpse of it on 
a distant hill, 
which commands 
a view of the 
surrounding 
country, and af- 
fords an excel- 
lent location for 
defence. Hug- 
ging the hill 
closely is a scat- 
tering village of 
peasant huts, 
with meadows and pasture lands stretching away to 
dense woodlands beyond. Surrounding the castle are 
huge stone walls, twelve feet thick and forty feet high. 

Just outside the walls is a great moat, or ditch, sixty The moat, 
feet wide and fifty feet deep, which may be filled with ^fdgt^Ind 
water. Before we can enter the only gateway in the the gateway 
castle w^alls, we must wait for the drawbridge to be let 
down over the moat. It is now upright against the 




THE DRAWBRIDGE OF THE CASTLE 



162 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



The 

towers and 
battlements 



towers of the gateway, to 
which it is joined at its 
inner end by means of 
strong hinges. To the 
outer end of the bridge 
are fastened long chains 
by which it is let down 
by some one in the tower, 
who turns a windlass. 
We cross over, but we 
cannot yet pass through 
the wall into the court- 
yard; for the portcullis, 
1 an iron gate, bars the en- 
i trance. Presently, if we 
are patient, this will 
move from our pathway. 
It will not swing on 
hinges like an ordinary 
gate, but will be raised 
by a windlass in the 
tower. 

If we are observing, we 
have noticed that at inter- 
vals on the walls there are towers and battlements which 
serve to strengthen the defence of the castle, and to 
protect the defenders when they shoot their arrows, 
hurl rocks and stones, or pour boiling oil or pitch upqn 
the enemy below; and the only windows are narrow 
slits, easily defended, from which missiles can be safely 
launched. On the walls stand watchmen also, who are 




THE CASTLE TOWERS AND BATTLEMENTS, 
MANNED FOB DEFENCE 



FEUDALISM 



163 



constantly on the lookout for an approaching enemy 
and ready to give the alarm by a trumpet blast. 

So you see that in the days when cannon and heavy How the 
guns were unknown, for gunpowder did not come into attackeT^ 
use in western Europe until the early part of the four- 
teenth century, it was extremely difficult to capture a 




THE GREAT HALL OF THE CASTLE. THE OATH OP FEALTY TO THE YOUNG LORD 



castle when there were brave men to defend it. Arrows, 
lances, swords, and battle-axes would make but little 
impression on such powerful stone walls. To beat them 
down, the warriors of the Middle Ages had a huge engine 
called a battering-ram to force an opening in the castle 
walls. It consisted of a great beam, or forest tree, with 
a head of iron, which was sometimes like a ram's head in 
shape, and was swung by a chain on a strong frame. 
The attacking party also at times dug their way under 



1G4 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



Inside the 
castle 




The 

furniture 
and rooms 



the walls. But if a castle was strongly defended^ the 
only sure w^ay of capturing it was to lay siege to it and 
cut off its supplies, thus starving the people into sub- 
mission. 

The area inside the castle walls sometimes covered 
several acres. Could w^e pass through the court-3^ard 
— ' ' ^^' and enter the castle just as 
it was in the Middle Ages, 
we should not think it very 
comfortable or convenient, 
even though the one we have 
in mind was the veiy best in 
the countr}^ The main room 
was an immense hall^ where 
the lord, his family, his guests, 
and his retainers and servants, 
all ate together; and most of 
the servants slept here unless 
they slept in the stable. In 
the middle of the clay floor 
was a blazing fire, with an 
opening in the roof above to 
let out the smoke. At one 
end of the hall was a wooden 
platform, or dais, on which 
stood the table for the noble and his family. 

There w^re no glass window^s, and the walls were bare 
and roughly plastered. The rude furniture was mostly 
built into its place so that it could not be moved. No 
one knew what it was to have a private room. Nor did 
rooms open into passageways, but into one another; so 



INSIDE THE MAIN GATE OF THE CASTLE 
A MINSTREL ENTERTAINING THE GATE 



FEUDALISM 



1G5 



that to get to a distant one^ it was necessary to pass 
through several others. 

120. The Hard, Rude Life of the Nobles.— It was a Fighting 
hard rude life which even the nobles led in the tenth and ^"^ ""^ 







1 .-M' 



A 






I 







THE CASTLE COURT-YARD. THE RETURN FROM A FORAY 

eleventh centuries. :Fighting was their chief business. 
They gloried in war and knew little of anything else. 
They cared nothing for books, and most of them could 
not even write their own names. If they were not light- 
ing— but we must remember that petty warfare was 
nearly always going on— they spent their time in sports. The life o£ 



Hunting and hawking were favorite occupations when 



166 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 

the weather permitted; but in the long winter evenings 
they played chess for a pastime and listened with pleas- 
ure to the songs of minstrels, and no doubt quarrelled 
somewhat over their drinking cups. It was this lack of 
anything in time of peace to keep men busy at hard, 
honest work which has left the tradition that a country 
needs frequent wars to keep its men strong and manly. 
This may have been true in the Middle Ages, but it is 
not at all true in our times. 

121. Knighthood and the Knights. — But the amuse- 
ments they prized most of all were the tournament and 
the joust, which we shall understand better when we 
learn about knighthood and the knights. 
Knighthood From the latter part of the tenth centur}^, it became 
feudaurm ° the custom for the men of the higher social classes to- 
fight on horseback, although the common people con- 
tinued to fight on foot. Out of the custom arose the 
word chivalry {cheval being the French word for horse),. 
which is much like our word cavalry. The warrior who' 
rode the horse was called a knight and belonged to a 
separate order called knighthood. This order has well 
been named the flower of feudalism, for it was the blos- 
soming of the ruder virtues which made the life of the 
later centuries of feudalism endurable. 
Ideals of The knights were men who, in those days of evil and 

violence, held lofty ideals and tried to keep ahve the 
Christian faith. They were not perfect men; indeed, 
some of them were very wicked, and coarse, and cruel;, 
but they were pledged to noble deeds, and many of them 
tried to keep their pledges. We shall now see how men_ 
became knights, and what they tried to do for the world.. 



the knights 



FEUDALISM 



16- 



At first any brave men could earn knighthood; but The 
later on only those of noble birth could enjoy this honor, the^^page^ 
At seven years old, the boys of lesser nobles were sent 
to the castle of some great and powerful lord to begin 
their training for knighthood. Such a boy was the con- 
stant attendant of both his master and his mistress. He 
waited on them in the hall, followed them in the hunt; 
and served the lady in the bower and the lord in the camp. 




A PART OF THE CEREMONY OF THE CONFERRING OF KNIGHTHOOD 



He was taught the meaning of religion^ love, and right 
living; and was trained not only in hunting and hawking, 
but also in such military exercises as carrying a shield 
and handling the lance. 

Having served as a page until he was fourteen, he be- The 
came a squire, and either at the same castle or at some llfe^sq^re^ 
other of his own choosing, he was taught to ride, to use 
his weapons, and to hunt; for a knight must be a good 
horseman, a good swordsman, and must be able to use 
his hawk in hunting. 

At twenty-one he was made a knight, by a ceremony ^^e cere- 
which varied with different times and places but which making a 
from the twelfth century came to be chiefly religious, kmgift^ 



168 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



For we must remember that the knight was not only a 
warrior; he was also a Christian, and one of his prin- 
cipal duties was to defend the church. On the evening 
before he was to be knighted the young man took a bath, 

during which two grave 
knights counselled him 
as to his knightly duties. 
After the bath two 
knights put on him a 
white shirt and a russet 
robe with long sleeves 
and a hermit's hood. 
Then in a gay procession 
he was led to the chapel, 
where wines and spices 
were served, after which 
he was left with a priest. 
The rest of the night 
he passed in prayer. At 
daybreak mass was cele- 
brated, and later in the 
day knights and squires 
took him to the castle 
hall. After his spurs had been fastened to his heels, the 
prince whose duty it was to knight him, girded on his 
sword, embraced him, and striking him three times on 
the shoulder with the flat blade of the sword, said, '^Be 
thou a good knight." Then the company went to the 
chapel, where the new knight, laying his right hand 
upon the altar, promised to support and defend the 
•church. 




THE VIGIL AT ARMS 



FEUDALISM 



169 



As a good knight, his vows bound him to obey and The vows of 
protect the church, to defend the weak and helpless, to ® ^^^ 
be absolute^ truthful, to be loyal to his chosen lady, and 
to defend all ladies of gentle birth. Men of that time 
did not realize that a true Christian knight should be 




THE TRIAL GALLOP 



the defender of all women, whether they were rich or 
poor. Still the ideals were high and fine, and have sur- 
vived in the ideals of a gentleman of to-day. The days 
of true knighthood will never pass. Even yet we speak 
of men as chivalrous when they are like the knights of 
the Middle Ages in noble ideals. 

The knight, as we have seen, always fought on horse- The 
back. Both he and his horse w^ere w^ell protected by weapons of 
armor that was difficult to penetrate by the weapons *^® kmght 
in use in those days. He wore a plumed helmet, a shield, 
and a coat of mail; and for weapons of attack carried a 
sword and lance, and sometimes a battle-axe. When he 
went to war, a squire attended him as a body servant. 



170 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



The purpose 
of the joust 
and the 
tournament 



It was the duty of the squire to look after his master's 
horse and weapons^ and to come to his assistance if he 
was wounded. In the course of time, the armor of the 
knight became so heav}^ that it required a strong horse 
to carry him. 

122. The Joust and the Tournament. — After the 
squire had become a knight, he set about training him- 
self for the jousts and tournaments, the great social 

events of that time. Jousts were 
contests between single combat- 
ants, while tournaments were 
more like mimic battles. They 
might be simple festal occasions, 
or serious trials of strength be- 
tween hostile factions. 

We have seen that war was al- 
most the only interest the nobles 
had. Accordingly, when real 
war was not in progress, mimic 
wars, or tournaments, were 
planned, such as Sir Walter Scott 
describes with graphic power in 
"Ivanhoe," and Tennyson in 
"Idylls of the King." These not only furnished interest 
and entertainment, but also the only military training to 
be had at that time. The noble who gave the tourna- 
ment could judge from it which of the knights would be 
the ablest warriors, and, the weak or clumsy were effectu- 
ally weeded out. 
Rules That the knights had high standards for themselves 

tournaments IS shown by the rules relating to tournaments. Since 




ARMOR OF 1440, SAID TO BE THE 
BEST PERIOD 



FEUDALISM 



171 



they were regarded as contests of honor, no knight could 
lake part in one if he had ever committed a crime, offended 
a lady, broken his word, or taken an mifair advantage of 
an enemy in battle. In other words, the knight must 
be pure, courteous, truthful, and fair. 

Let us suppose that some great nobleman has pro- An imagi- 
claimed a tournament. Heralds have been sent far and aTouma- 
near to summon the ablest knights, and foreign cham- "^^^* 
pions have been specially invited. Many knights and 
ladies arrive. They are lodged in the castle, in the neigh- 
boring town, or in tents under the trees in the meadows 
outside the castle. On 
the day of the combat 
the tents of the knights, 
and the lists — that is, the 
field of the fight — are 
decked with banners and 
coats of arms, and the gal- 
leries where the knights 
and the ladies, and some- 
times even the King and 
Queen, sit are gay with 
hanging tapestries and 
gorgeous costumes. In the 
field are groups of knights 
and the judges. The 
horses, gaily decked with 
rich trappings, are champ- 
ing their bits and pranc- 
ing nervously, in their disposition or line-up of knights, at one 

„ , „ SIDE OF A TOURNEY FIELD, SHOWING FIGURE- 

eagerness lor trie iray. heads on top of helmets 




172 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



The mimic 
battle 



A. ccstly 
prize 



The combatants are in two divisions^ one at 
each end of the field. There may be hundreds 
of them. In fact they compose two small 
armies. The herald proclaims the rules of the 
combat, the opposing bands advance on horse- 
back, each knight showing his lady's color, or 
device. Then the signal is given, and they 
charge forward amid excited cries and cheers 
from the gallery. Usually their weapons are 
blunt sw^ords or lances, but the contest is very 
rough and sometimes many are killed. Each 
knight endeavors to knock his opponent from 
his horse or break his lance. The clang of 
armor, the clash of broken spears, the 
shouts of spectators, the waving of 
kerchiefs, all add to the intense excite- 
ment. Sometimes in the hottest part of 
the fight a strange knight, or a troop 
of knights all dressed alike, swoop from 
the crest of a neighboring hill and turn 
the tide of a battle.. 

Wiien the victory is decided, a costly 
prize is awarded — jewels, armor, or a 
fine steed, and best of all, the praise 
of the victor's lady. In these mimic 
battles, of which there were many, the 
knights found their best opportunity 
to win glory for themselves and the 
app.^oval of their ladies. 
123. What We Owe to Knighthood. — After the use 
of gunpowder began in the fourteenth century, the 




THE ARMOR AND LANCE OF 
A KNIGHT OP 1550 



FEUDALISM 173 

armored horseman lost much of the advantage he had 
enjoyed in battle over the man on foot, whose principal 
weapon was the bow and arroW; and little by little the 
influence of knighthood waned. 

This did not mean the loss of all the good which The knight 
chivaliy had brought^ however. For the knight had the German 
same keen sense of freedom^ the same proud spirit; and barbarian 
the same love of war that belonged to the German bar- 
barians before they left their forest homes; and when he 
vowed that he would obey and protect the churchy that 
he would defend the weak and the helpless, that he 
would be lo}' al to his lord and to his chosen lad}', and 
that he would alwa^^s be brave and truthful, he w^as 
setting up a standard of conduct which w^ould never be 
permitted to die. Some of the strongest ties that bind 
men together in their common work for the betterment 
of human life to-day reach back to the age of feudalism 
and knighthood. ' ^ 

THINGS TO REMEMBER 

1. As there was no strong central governing power anywhere in 
western Europe, each community had to keep order for itself and 
protect itself against danger and violence just as it had to provide 
the food and other things needed for its daily life. 2. The rich 
land-owner was the most powerful man in an}" rural locality, and 
he became the ruler and law-giver of the people who lived on his 
land. He, as lord, gave them the use of his land, and they, as 
vassals, gave him, in return, some form of personal service. 3. The 
castle was both a fortress and a dwelling-place. 4. Knighthood 
was the flower of feudalism. The vows of the knight bound him to 
obey and protect the church, to be absolutely truthful, and to 
defend all ladies of gentle birth. 5. The great social events of 



174 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 

that time were the joust and the tournament. 6. Some of the 
strongest ties that bind men together in their common work for 
the betterment of human Hfe to-day had their beginning in the 
days of feudaUsm and knighthood. 

TO THE PUPIL 

1. Explain why each community had to govern itself and supply itself 
with ahnost everything it needed for its daily life. 

2. How was it that the rich land-owner came to be a ruler and law-giver ? 

3. Why was it that men greatly needed protection in those days ? Eow 
did they get it ? 

4. Explain the relations between the lord and his vassal. Imagine your- 
self a lord and tell as clearly as you can what you have a right to expect 
from your vassal for protecting him. 

5. Why did the lord need a castle ? In an imaginary visit to one, de- 
scribe it as it appears to you. Try to get a clear picture in your mind 
before you begin to tell what the picture is. 

6. Now go inside the castle and tell what you see. 

7. What can you tell about the life of the lord ? 

8. What was the page, and what were his duties ? 

9. What was the ceremony of making a squire a knight ? 

10. What were the vows of the knight ? What were his armor and 
weapons ? 

11. What was the purpose of the joust and the tournament ? Imagine 
yourself present at a tournament and picture what you see. 

12. In what respects were the knights like the early German warriors ? 
In what ways were the vassals like the body-guard of the German chief ? 

13. What do v/e owe to knighthood ? 



CHAPTER XVI 

VILLAGE LIFE IN THE MIDDLE AGES 

The lord and 1 24. The Lord and the Manor. — Having noted some- 
his vassals ^j^-^^g q£ ^Yiq life of the noble and the knight, we may 
now turn briefly to those who filled a humbler place 
among the people. As we have seen, in order that a 
powerful baron might get vassals to fight for him and 
attend his courts of justice, he granted estates for them 



VILLAGE LIFE IN THE MIDDLE AGES 



175 



and the serfs 




MANOR HOUSE IN SUFFOLK, ENGLAND 



to use and govern. Each of these vassals — and they 
might be nobles and lords themselves — also gave por- 
tions of his estate, under similar conditions, to still other 
vassals. In other words, the same man might have a 
lord over him and vassals under him. 

The estate which a lord held under his control was The manor 
called a manor (sometimes called a vill also). It was 
cut into two divisions. The 
first; which the lord kept for 
his own use, was called the 
domain. The second he turned 
over to serfs, who paid him 
for its use in part by working 
for him on his domain, and in 
part by giving him a portion of 
what they produced on the land 
which they cultivated for themselves. This land of the The serfs 
serfs was broken up into many parts, as a rule into long ^^^ ^^® ^^°^ 
strips, a number of which, scattered about the manor, 
were allotted to each serf for his own use. In addition 
to the field which the serfs cultivated, they had the use 
of meadows, pastures, and woods for their pigs and cattle. 

While the serf did not own any of the land, yet the lord what the 
could not take it from him so long as he did as he had the^^iofd^^ 
agreed. The terms of agreement varied with different 
estates. Those which the Abbot of Peterborough (Eng- 
land) made with his serfs will illustrate fairly well the 
ordinary relations which existed between a lord and his 
serfs. Every week in the year, except three, they were 
to work for him on the domain; and each .was to give 
him annually a bushel of wheat, eighteen sheaves of 



176 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



Some duties 
of the serfs 



oats, three hens, one cock, and five eggs, besides tilHng 
the lord's fields and gathering his harvest. 

The serfs on any estate were to cut and haul wood 
for the fires in the lord's house, keep his castle and other 

buildings in repair, and perform 

all other labor that he needed to 

have done. The house in which 

<=|fc^- . "2 lord lived was called the manor 

L\'-A^ ^W^^^^^^S^ house, if it was not a castle. It 

m^^^wi^^^^^M. stood near the \dllage where the 

serfs lived and in the midst of 




FEEDING CHICKENS IN THE FOUR- 
TEENTH CENTURY, AS PICTURED 
IN AN OLD PSALTER 



the farm lands. 

125. The Life of the Serfs. 



Their houses We can hardly realize how miserable these peasants 
were. Their houses were wretchedl}^ built of timber 
covered with mud or thatch, and each had but one room, 
which was without windows. In the middle of the floor 
w^as a fire, and a hole in the roof above let out the smoke. 
The fire gave the only heat the shivering family had, 
and its smouldering embers the only light after nightfall. 
The peasant and his fam- 
ily went to bed on heaps 
of straw, in the clothes 
they had worn all da}^ 

Their food was bad. 
The bread was ^^as dark 
as mud and as tough as 

shoe-leather." All ^^inter long they were without veg- 
etables or fresh food of any kind, even fresh meat; and 
as salt was very expensive, the hams and bacon were 
poorly preserved, and generally spoiled before the winter 



Their food 
and drink 




FEEDING PIGS IN THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY, 
AS PICTURED IN AN OLD MANUSCRIPT 



VILLAGE LIFE IN THE MIDDLE AGES 



r 




GRINDING WITH A HAND-MILL IN THE 
FOrRTEENTH CENTURY, AS PICT- 
URED IN AN OLD MANUSCRIPT 



was over. Honey and evaporated fruit juices were their 
only sweet; for sugar was costly. Their drink was water, 
home-brewed beer, or cider. There was no tea or coffee, 
and no strong drink except their own brew of beer. 

Tobacco was unknown. The 
cattle were as badly fed as 
the people, and were nothing 
but '^skin and bone'' and 
undersized. 

For dress, they wore a Their dress 
rough garment which left 
arms and legs uncovered, and 
which was tied with a rope 
around the waist. This they 
wore day and night. They were wholly uneducated. 
Very few knew even how to read; and as their life was 
hard and wretched, they were almost as savage and 
cruel as the wild beasts. 
The English peasantry were badly off, but the con- Their 

. . . • -^ 1 r^ wretched 

dition of the sens m 1^ ranee and Germany was even condition 

worse. For the nobles there 

were not held in check under 

a strong central government as 

nearly always in England, and 

were constantly at war. War 

commonly meant the burning 

of villages, the plundering of 

the little stores of provisions belonging to the serfs, and 

the inflicting of shocking personal injuries on them. 

The serfs were not capable farmers. We should hardly The serfs 
expect them to be, considering how ignorant and mis- 




REAPING IN THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY, 
AS PICTURED IN AN OLD PSALTER 



178 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



Poor tools 




THRESHING IN THE FOURTEENTH CEN- 
TURY, AS PICTURED IN AN OLD 
PSALTER 



crable they were. For one thing, they had poor tools. 
They had no iron ploughs, but only a sort of wooden 
hoe with which they dug into the 
earth. Their forks and rakes also 
were of wood. For weeding they 
had two sets of tools. In the moist 
ground, where the weeds came out 
easily, they used wooden tongs; 
but when the ground w^as hard and 
dr}^, they pushed the weed away 
from them with a forked stick, and 
then cut it off close to the ground wdth a sharp hook. 
They had axes and sc}i:hes also, saws, wheelbarrows, 
butter-churns, and so on; 
but we do not know how 
good these tools w^ere. 

126. Other People be- 
sides Serfs on the Manor. 
— There might be some 

freemen on the manor who held and used their land like 
serfs. There were also a few people who were better off 
than the laborers. These were not farmers, but they 
paid rent to the lord. Such were the priest, the miller, 
the blacksmith, and other craftsmen. Nearly ever^^thing 
used in the manor was made there, for in the early Mid- 
dle Ages there was very little trading between villages. 




PLOUGHING IN THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY, 
AS PICTURED IN AN OLD PSALTER 



THINGS TO REMEMBER 

1. The estate which a lord held under his control was called a 
manor and sometimes a vill. The part of the estate which the 
lord kept for his own use was called the domain. 2. The remainder 



TOWNS AND GUILDS IN THE MIDDLE AGES 179 

of the manor he turned over to serfs, who paid him for its use in 
part by working on his domain and in part by giving him a por- 
tion of what they produced on the land which they cultivated for 
themselves. 3. While the serf did not own any of the land, yet 
the lord could not take it from him so long as he did as he had 
agreed. 4. The condition of the serfs was wretched. 5. Nearly 
everything used in the manor was made there, for in the early 
Middle Ages there was very little trading between villages. 

TO THE PUPIL 

1. Explain again the relation between the lord and his vassal. 

2. What was the manor ? How was it divided ? What was the 
domain ? 

3. What was the relation between the lord and the serf ? What was 
the serf's relation to the land he used ? 

4. What was the difference between a serf and a vassal ? Between a 
serf and a slave ? Which do you think was better off ? 

5. Tell all you can about the houses, food, and drink, and the dress of 
the serfs. 

6. What kind of tools did they use ? What kind of farmers were they ? 



CHAPTER XVII 

TOWNS AND GUILDS IN THE MID13LE AGES 

127. Towns. — When the German barbarians took villages and 
control of the countries in western Europe, they Hved °^^^ 
mostly in villages. There is little doubt that up to the 
twelfth century the greater part of the people in Eng- 
land, Germany, and northern and central France lived 
in the country on the great estates belonging to feudal 
lords, abbots, and bishops. But in the latter half of 
the Middle Ages, as trade developed, the villages which 
clustered about the monaster}^, or rested under the pro- 



180 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 









tection of castle walls, and some which were located 
on the sea-coast, grew into towns and even cities. 
Walls, gates, On account of the continuous warfare of this period, 
watchmen^ it was found expedient, as in ancient times, to surround 
towns and small cities by massive walls, often eight to 
J I ten feet thick, and twenty-five 

to thirty feet high. As in the 
case of castles, just outside the 
wall there was a deep and broad 
moat or ditch. Opening on a 
few of the principal streets were 
strong gates with a tower on 
each side. At the principal gate 
was a castle where a garrison 
was kept, and on the roof of the 
gate-tower was stationed a watch- 
man ready to blow a horn in 
warning if an enemy approached. 
Scattered here and there along 
the city wall were kept a few 
guards chosen from the citizens and relieved daily. 
Small towers, like Httle arsenals, stood about one hundred 
and twenty feet apart along the entire length of the wall. 
Just outside the walls of these mediaeval towns and 
cities were farming lands, beyond which extended the 
pastures, meadows, and woodlands belonging to the 
people in common. City herdsmen and field watchmen 
were appointed to drive the flocks out of the town to 
pasture and to stand guard during the day, for in these 
dark and dangerous times nothing was safe from the 
robber bands. 




ONE OF THE OLD CITY GATES OF 
YORK, ENGLAND 



The sur- 
roundings of 
the towns 



TOWNS AND GUILDS IN THE MIDDLE AGES 181 

Entering a gate of one of these cities, we should pass The streets 
through narrow streets, some of them Httle more than houses^ 
alleys, with the upper stories of the houses jutting out 
over the lower until they almost meet. Many of the 
towns were so crowded with houses that there were few 



,^^"% 




THE Cirr WALLS OF YORK. £NGLAND 



or no open spaces except the market-place. The walls 
of some of these cities, for example those of Chester, 
Carcassonne, and Rotenburg, are still standing as pict- 
uresque relics of the days of feudalism. 

128. Guilds. — In our time, eveiy man is his own The town 
master and free to live where he likes and to do what owner 
suits him best so long as he does not interfere with the 
rights of others. But in the early part of the Middle 
Ages, every town in western Europe belonged to some 
lord or to a monaster}^, just as did the manors. The 
peoDle of the town had to pay heavy dues to the ow:ner, 



182 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



Why the 
people 
demanded 
charters 



The 

merchants 
and artisans 



and they had Ht.tle trade with other towns. They made 
almost eveiything that they needed for themselves^ and 
had little more freedom than the serfs on the farms. 

When traders from distant countries began to come in, 
about the twelfth centuiy, these towns-people wanted 
to exchange goods with them. They would give the 

articles they made in ex- 
change for what the traders 
brought. This was difficult 
to manage, because the lords 
were so strict and so exact- 
ing. When the towns be- 
came strong enough, they 
revolted and demanded 
charters; that is, permission 
to cany on trade as they 
wished without the lord's 
meddling, and a written 
promise from the lord not 
to tax or fine them except 
at certain definite times and 
for certain definite sums of 
money. Usually they were given the right to govern 
themselves and to form trade guilds. 

These guilds were a very important part of the town 
life, and a necessary part at that time. The men en- 
gaged in trade were both merchants and artisans. All 
the goods were sold in the shops where they were 
made. The mxn felt it necessary that every one should 
have as good a chance as his neighbor to sell his wares, 
that competition should not lower prices, and that a 




PHCENIX TOWER AND A BIT OF THE OLD 
CITY WALL, CHESTER, ENGLAND 



TOWNS AND GUILDS IN THE MIDDLE AGES 183 



flood of new workers should not lower wages beyond 
a fair limit. 

Accordingly^ all the men engaged in a certain trade The rules of 
formed a corporation, or guild, and promised to obey ^ ^ ^"^ 
certain rules. For instance, all the cobblers, or shoe- 
makers, of a town would form one of these guilds, and 
choose officers from among them- 
selves to see that the rules were 
obeyed. These rules stated, among 
other things, how many apprentices, 
or pupils, each shoemaker could 
have in his shop, and how long a 
time these apprentices must spend 
in learning the trade; at how high 
a price certain kinds of shoes should 
be sold; and how shoes must be 
made. The rules also provided that 
every pair of shoes must be thor- 
oughly inspected before it was sold, 

and that disorderly and disobedient members of the guild 
should be punished. In joining the guild, the shoemakers 
(or goldsmiths, or whatever they might be) agreed to 
help any member if in trouble, and in case of his death 
to aid his widow and children. 

These guilds were not open to every one. No man The con- 
could belong to one who had not spent years as an ap- entering a 
prentice in learning the trade, and the number of appren- s"*^^ 
tices was very limited. To be a goldsmith, an appren- 
tice worked for ten years, and for other trades a shorter 
time. The apprentice lived in the house of his master 
and worked very hard, but was paid nothing, although 




BUTCHERS GUILD HALL, HEREFORD, 
ENGLAND 



184 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 

he was boarded and clothed. When he became a jour- 
neyman, he received wageS; but was still obliged to work 
for his master. He could not go into business inde- 
pendently until he became a master- workman. 
A privilege It was a great privilege to belong to a guild. Nobody 
a^guiid^^ ^° ^^'as allowed to practice a trade who did not belong to 
one; and only the members of guilds took part in the 
government of the town. Often they came to be very 
wealthy, through their membership fees and fines and 
gifts from rich members. The members were very 
proud of their guild and of the privileges it brought to 
them. Some of the important ones persist in European 
cities to-day. 

THINGS TO REMEMBER 

1. On account of the continuous warfare of this period it was 
found expedient, as in ancient times, to surround towns and small 
cities by massive walls. 2. In the early part of the Middle Ages 
every town in western Europe belonged to some lord or to a mon- 
astery, just as did the manors. 3. When traders began to come 
in about the twelfth century the townspeople wanted to exchange 
goods with them. This was difficult to manage because the lords 
were so strict and exacting. 4. When, therefore, the towns became 
strong enough they demanded charters; that is, permission to 
carry on trade as they wished without the lord's meddling and a 
written promise from the lord not to tax or fine them except at 
certain definite times and for certain definite sums of money. 
Usually they were given the right to govern themselves and to 
form trade guilds. 4. All the men engaged in a certain trade 
formed a guild because they felt it necessary that every one should 
have as good a chance as his neighbor to sell his wares, that com- 
petition should not lower prices, and that a flood of new workers 
should not lower wages beyond a fair limit. 



THE CHURCH, MONASTERY, AND MONKS 185 



TO THE PUPIL 

1. How were towns and cities protected, and why ? 

2. Who owned the towns ? 

3. Why did the people demand charters ? What rights and privileges 
did the people secure through these charters ? 

4. What were the trade guilds and what were their rules ? 

5. Why was it a great privilege to belong to a guild ? 



CHAPTER XVIII 

THE CHURCH, THE MONASTERY, AND THE 

MONKS 

129. The Growing Power of the Christian Church. — The 

We have just learned what a power feudalism was in church^ 
the Middle Ages. Along with this institution and quite ^^^ll^ history 
equal to it in importance was the Christian church. 
We have learned, also, how the Christians, in spite of 
bitter persecution by Rome, continued to grow in num- 
bers and influence until, in the first quarter of the fourth 
century, the Emperor Constantine not only allowed them 
freedom of worship, but made Christianity a state re- 
ligion. Constantine's successors went further. First they 
made it the only state religion and then the only religion 
of any sort that was allowed. 

We might have expected that the overthrow of Rome The grow, 
by the Germans would put an end to the growth of the church^ 
Christianity. On the contrary, as the Roman govern- 
ment became weaker, the Christian church grew stronger, 
for its priests and bishops became the only protectors 
of the people against plunder and outrage. And when 
the Roman civil power was overthrown altogether, the 



186 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



graded system of the church — Pope^ bishops, priests, etc. 
— actually took the place of the destroyed civil govern- 
ment with its graded system of officials. 

Thus when Rome could no longer hold together the 
parts of the empire, the only bond which prevented 
M?^!e^ Ages ^^^^P^ ^^'^^^ falling into hopeless and entirely separate 
fragments was the Christian faith. Then, just as Rome 



The Roman 
Catholic 
Church su- 




THE lONA MONASTERY BUILDINGS WHICH EXIST TO-DAY AND DATE FROM THE ELEVENTH 
CENTURY. THE CATHEDRAL DATES FROM THE THIRTEENTH TO THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY 



The Pope 
and the 
bishops 



had been supreme in her days of splendor, so did the 
Roman Catholic Church become for a time supreme in 
the Middle Ages, not alone as a religious power but as a 
political power. 

The head of the church was the Pope, who dwelt 
at Rome. Under him were many bishops, scattered 
throughout the Christian world, each controlling a dis- 
trict called a diocese. The principal church of each 
diocese was called a cathedral. The same system holds 



THE CHURCH, MONASTERY, AND MONKS 187 



to-day. But the institution by which the church did 
its great work in the Middle Ages was the monastery. 

130. How the Monasteries Began. — In early times, Hermits 
when there was so much fighting among nations, and 
no one lived in peace or safety, there were men who 
chose to dwell apart in some lonely place and there 
give their lives 
to holy thinking 
and prayer. In 
Egypt; where 
this practice be- 




INTERIOR OF lONA MONASTERT CATHEDRAL 



gan, men went 
singly into the 
desert and lived 
as hermits. 
There, they be- 
lieved, with no 

one near to interrupt their thoughts, they would be 
free from all temptation and could make themselves 
more pleasing to God. Later on, however, men found Monks and 
that it was better to live in groups, for in this way they °^°°^^*®"®s 
could not only support themselves more easily, and be 
independent of the outside world, but they could learn 
from each other and inspire each other to do nobler work. 
The men who formed groups of this kind were called 
monks, and the houses in which they lived were called 
monasteries. 

Monks first appeared in western Europe about the Monasteries 
middle of the fourth century, and it was not long before western ^^' 
monasteries spread all over the west. St. Patrick, of ^^^^P® 
whom we have already spoken, is said to have introduced 



188 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 

the monaster}^ into Ireland. On lona, a small island 
off the western coast of Scotland; his followers built a 
great monastery^ one of the most famous of that day. 
Near it was also a nunnery. Before the beginning of 
the sixth century^ there were in western Europe hun- 
dreds of monasteries and thousands of monks. For 




ST. BENEDICT PERFORMING MIRACLES, AFTER THE PAINTING BY RUBENS 

such large numbers of men to live and work successfully 
together, it was found necessary to organize them; that 
is, to have officers and also rules to govern them. 

The abbot 131. St. Benedict's Rule. — With this need in view, 

one of the greatest leaders of the monks, St. Benedict, 
prepared his rule (about 526), which was generally fol- 
lowed in the west for four centuries. According to this, 
the abbot who governed the monastery was elected 
by the monks, who served a long period of probation 

The vows of before being admitted to the order. As their life was 
to be one of self-denial, they took three vows. They 



the monks 



THE CHURCH, MONASTERY, AND MONKS 



189 



The power 
of Cluny 



promised that they would give up all their property, 
that they would never many, and that they would obey 
the rules and regulations of the monastery. They must 
not only spend much time in prayer and thought, but 
they must work also. 

132. The Famous Cluny. — Early in the tenth cen- 
tur}^, what afterward proved to be the most important 
monastery of that time, was 
established in Burgundy. This 
was the famous Cluny, whose 
monks followed a ^^rule" some- 
what different from that of St. 
Benedict, though they wore the 
Benedictine habit. At first it 
had only twelve monks, but 
later it became a great power, 
with dependent monasteries in 
many places, all controlled by 
the abbot of the parent monastery. 
Cluny were very great men. 

The monks at Clun}^ were required to perform each How the 
da}^ a certain amount of labor, like shelling beans and their t1me^° 
weeding in the gardens, though only enough to keep 
them humble and free from empty pride. Of the re- 
mainder of their time, the part not spent in religious 
exercises was to be given to reading, copying manu- 
scripts, and singing. 

Cluny became a centre of teaching. The monks kept ciuny as a 
a school there for novices; that is, for boys who might teaching 
later become monks. Very stern, strict teachers these 
monks were, not sparing the rod even for slight offences. 




MONKS AT WORK IN THE MONASTERY KITCHEN 



The first abbots of 



190 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



Hospitality 
and charity 
at Cluny 



The monk 
and the 
soldier 



They looked carefully after the children's health also, 
as well as after their morals. 

Hospitality and charity were cardinal duties, and were 
looked after by two important officers; one took charge 
of guestS; and the other of wanderers and beggars. 
Every day, no matter how hard the times were, generous 
alms in money and food were given to the poor. So it 
came about that Cluny was beloved by the poor, just 
as it was courted by the rich and great. Other monas- 
teries !:ided the poor also; but Cluny established the 
practice as a constant duty, never to be neglected. 

133. The Dress of the Monks. — It is not our purpose 
to follow the many orders of monks, nor to speak in 
detail of special monasteries. A brief gen- 
eral view will serve our purpose. As our 
glance turns back over the centuries of the 
Dark Ages and its chief figures pass before 
our eyes, the flowing black robe of the monk 
stands out in striking contrast to the gleam- 
ing armor of the soldier and the richly colored 
costume of the knight. But his sombre garb 
is suited to this man of holy vows, whom 
we shall find it interesting to follow as he 
moves quietly about in his field of service. 

Although his monastery might be wealthy, 
perhaps immensely so, the monk did not own 
any personal property. Even his garments 
The cassock belonged to his order; that is, to his monastery. His 
clothes were coarse and plain, the principal garment being 
a long woollen cassock, white or black, but generally 
black, with long sleeves. Over this he wore a black 




A MONK DRESSED IN THE 
WOOLLEN CASSOCK 



and the cowl 



192 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



The cloister 
and the 
buildings 
that 
surround it 



mantle with a large hood; called a cowl; unless he was 
at work. When he was at work the cowl was replaced 
by a shorter sleeveless tuniC; with a hood such as peas- 
ants wore. On his feet he wore sandals. Sometimes in 
cold weather shoes and stockings and warm cloaks were 
supplied; but quite as often the dress remained the same 
in winter as in summer. St. Benedict advised plenty of 
wholesome food; but in many monasteries the food was 
very light and scant. 

134. The Monastery Buildings. — The monasteiy build- 
ings were at first small; plain structures; and as there 
w^as no thought of providing comfort or privacy; the 
monks were crowded into as few rooms as possible. 

Later; as the mon- 
asteries grew in 
wealth; sizC; and 
importance; their 
abodes became 
much more pre- 
tentious. An open 
court; or cloister, 
with a garden 
surrounded bv a 

BOLTON PRIORY. YORKSHIRE, ENGLAND. FOUNDED IN 1120 " 

BY THE AUGUSTINIAN ORDER. THE PRIOR WAS A GREAT shaded Walk, 

FEUDAL DIGNITARY 

formed the heart 
of the monastery; while the surroundings of the court 
might include cells for the monkS; a chapel; a chapter 
housC; work alcoveS; the dining-room; a sitting-room; and 
quarters for the abbot and guests. As we should expect; 
the church was the most important part of the monas- 
teiy, the grandest ones being cathedrals. 




THE CHURCH, MONASTERY, AND MONKS 



193 



135. The Sites of the Monasteries. — The sites of The growth 
the monasteries varied greatly. Sometimes there was monastery 
no choice of location, as the land was a gift; and again 

the monks purposely chose undesirable land, to give 
themselves employment in improving and reclaiming it 
for agriculture. Often the necessity of a retired and 
safe location forced them to take untilled soil. But 
many times, when cir- 
cumstances were favor- 
able, they were able to 
choose fertile grounds, 
with a stream and per- 
haps a fish-pond. There, 
year by year, the build- 
ings of the monastery 
would rise — first the 
cloister and the church, 
then the abbot's lodge 
and other necessary 
buildings. These would 
be enclosed with a stone wall, and beneath this, as in 
other large estates, the cottages of laborers and servants 
would lie. 

136. Occupations of the Monks. — The monks did The monks 
great service in establishing farming on a dignified and 
intelligent basis. We are told that they were the first 
scientific farmers after the fall of Rome and the invasions 

of the barbarians. A great deal of land was reclaimed 
and made valuable by them, and dangerous swamps 
were drained. They kept live-stock, raised crops of 
all kinds, grew their own vegetables, made cider and 




A CONCEET IN THE MONASTERY 



194 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



What the 
monks did 



cheese, and often kept bees or bred horses. This sort of 

work was an important part of the Hfe of the monastery. 

The In later times, as you have learned, the monastery 

Stena^g^'eat was often a great feudal estate. Besides farming, many 

feudal estate other industries were carried on. The monks were the 

millers, carpenters, and masons, and in the early days 

they were their own cooks. They were the fine and 

careful artisans and craftsmen of the day, preserving 

the knowledge of handicrafts for more peaceful ages. 

And some were archi- 
tects; also sometimes 
they made, arms and 
musical instruments. 
They were the physi- 
cians of the commu- 
nity, studying and 
practising medicine. 
They studied music, 
painted, and did wood- 
carving and weaving. 
Besides this, they were 
also the teachers of the 
young, as we have seen at Cluny. In the midst of all 
this activity their religious duties were not forgotten, for 
they worshipped together seven times daily, one of their 
meetings being at midnight. 

137. The Monks' Service to the World in Copying 
Books. — ^But their greatest service to the world, per- 
haps, was their work in copying books; for by doing this 
they preserved for us many works which would other- 
wise have been lost or destroyed. ' 




SIONE3 ENGAGED IN LITERARY WORK AND COPYING 



THE CHURCH, MONASTERY, AND MONKS 195 

In the large room called the scriptorium we may The monks 
picture from ten to twenty of the younger monks writing or^writm|"^^ 
at slanting desks. The novices are probably at work on ^o^^s 
missals, or service books, for the choir. The room is 
silent; for no talking is allowed. Presently we notice a 
keen-eyed, elderly monk, who is giving advice to a flaxeii- 
haired boy, possibly about the color or design of an 
initial letter. 

Separated from the main room are alcoves where the 
older and more skilful monks are busy with choicer manu- 
scripts. They may be copying or they may be writing 
books of their own. These, of course, would be mainly The monks 
religious. Others may be at work on a chronicle, for we of hiSo^^ 
must remember that it was the monks who preserved for 
us nearly all we know of the history of the Middle Ages. 
Each monastery kept its own record of current events. 

For centuries the monks were practically the only The 
educated class. Nearly all English literature down to mi^^trnT^ 
Chaucer's day (1340-1400) was written in monasteries, 
or at least by monks — mostly chronicles and religious 
works in prose and verse. Some of our finest hymns 
were written in monasteries. 

All the copying had to be done by hand and was very How the 
slow, painstaking work. It is not surprising, when we take wTi'done 
into account the amount of copying done, that some- 
times mistakes were made. The monks did not use the 
loose, careless hand which people write to-day. Each 
letter was most carefully formed. Black ink was used, 
though commonly the titles of the books were in red. 
Sometimes, in the early Middle Ages costly manu- 
scripts were written in gold or silver on parchment, 



196 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



The monks 
preserve the 
Greek and 
Roman 
classics 



Education 
for a long 
time in the 
hands of 
monasteries 



.^^fe 



tinted purple or yellow. But later on the capital letters 
alone were gilded in this way, and were made very artis- 
tic and graceful decorations of the page. Papyrus was 
used; to some extent, 
as by the Greeks and 
Romans; but later, 
vellum made from 
calfskin, and then 
parchment from 
lambskin, took its 
place. 

We are told that 
few of the classics of 
Greek or Roman lit- 
erature would have 
been left to us had 
not the monks col- 
lected, preserved, and 
copied them in such 
great numbers. We 
can hardly realize 
what a loss this would 
have been to the 

world. Some of the most beautiful and valuable work in 
copying! was done by the Benedictine nuns, who excelled 
even tae monks in skill and patience. 

138 The Monks as Teachers. — For many centuries 
the cnly schools were those which the monks kept. 
Indeed, from the time of Charlemagne until about the 
eleventh century, education was entirely in the hands 
ot the monasteries. When, about the eleventh century, 



n'ttf qtun m'dUxpltcp.n (mivqtu m 
nir mc mutTtttUtttsttuTiiDtirrfti mc- 
nsmTiinmic mcf;non eft {(tins tpft 

^ u cnixan comtnc fttlSocptoj ntats cs- gtonrt 
inw crctalmns omttr nxatm tmsaM i K mmm 

0/jo conntui ct Copamts ftnn:crafttttttt qt« 

. .iMi^'^^ ttmcic mtitfiiBptui amtmnmrts mc-cr ^ , 
^ ?4i'*?'' "^^"'"^ featitm mc fo-jcas tncits^^ ^^'^Sf^J 
^ K tv^wntt^tn ttt v^xadMt omncB cisttcritmm '^'. ^-^ / 
y\ J^ tturiu:fmffAuC:arttc&4r£arro«antmtttft 

pn Jh^d txaxnm'.mmmhxmntmxciiiitmtdn- 

|i t^"Uu Jotnmtmt tx&iiqtm gx>itti.cmz:uxqua}^ 

li CCrfatDtcJiiiofxwmmtttftC'nurromuiaBl 
II fimditm CixinmcBtrAtniz mtm:t nit atm 04 




A GREATLY REDUCED PAGE OP ILLUMINATED MS. OF 
THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY 



THE CHURCH, MONASTERY, AND MONKS 197 

universities came to be founded; the higher education 
passed to them. But the monks still taught most of 
the elementary schools. These were not merely for 
boys who expected to become monks, but schools for ciaXes ^ 
boys of all classes in the community^ the sons of knights 



Schools for 




PURNESS ABBEY, LANCASHIRE, ENGLAND. FOUNDED IN 1127 BY THE CISTERCIAN 
ORDER. THE ABBOT OF THE MONASTERY NOT ONLY POSSESSED JURISDICTION 
OVER THE MONKS, BUT GOVERNED THE PEOPLE OF THE REGION AS WELL 

as well as the sons of serfs and freemen. Sometimes 
one monastery maintained several free schools. Thus 
they kept alive an interest in learning, which perhaps 
would otherwise have been lost. 

139. How the Monks Treated the Sick and Strangers. The monks 
— Part of the work done by the monasteries, as we have hospitals^ 
seen in the case of Cluiw, was in establishing hospitals 
for sick people, just outside the walls of the monaster}^, 
or in the towns. In those days no such provision was 
made for the sick as we make in our own cities now; 



198 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 

though endowed hospitals and government charities were 
far from being unknown. So the monks built and sup- 
ported hospitals^ helped by gifts from wealthy people, 
and nursed the sick. It is hardly necessary to add that 
in this good work the nuns were of great assistance. In 
the eleventh centur}^, an order of monks was founded 
which had as their chief aim the healing of the sick and 
suffering. They built hospitals in many places, and did 
a great deal of good. 
The enter- One of the most important duties of the monks, as 
stra^e^s we saw at Cluny, was the entertainment of strangers. 
For this purpose, some of the best rooms of the mon- 
astery were especially designed. Guests of all ranks, 
knights and ladies, travelling priests or monks, minstrels, 
poor men and beggars, all were entertained with equal 
courtesy. No charge was made; but those who had 
money paid what they could afford. It was not con- 
sidered courteous, as a rule, to stay more than two days 
and two nights, although the visit often lasted much 
longer. In each case one of the foremost monks was 
made the host. 
The In lonely sections of the country, and among the 

refuge for mountains, the monasteries were the only refuge for 
travellers travellers. No doubt the good monks were well paid 
for their hospitality by hearing from such wayfarers the 
news of the outside world. And no guest ever left these 
asylums without receiving some gift from the monks. 
"The bell At a monastery in the midst of wild mountains in 

wanderers" France, a bell was rung for two hours every evening, as 
a summons to travellers who might have lost their way. 
It was called 'Hhe bell of the wanderers." Along sea- 



THF CHURCH, MONASTERY, AND MONKS 



199 



coasts, toOj where there were dangerous rocks, the monks 
rang bells as signals to sailors, and were always ready 
to receive smp wrecked mariners. Some monks in Scot- 
land placed a great bell on a dangerous rock, still called 
Bell Rock, so that the motion of the waves would ring 
it and warn ships away. In such ways as these the 




FOUNTAINS ABBEY, YORKSHIRE, ENGLAND. FOUNDED IN 1132 BY THE 
CISTERCIAN ORDER 



monks did great service to the people, and won love and 
loyalty to themselves and to their religion. 

140. The Monks Render Many Noble Services to 
Mankind. — ^Thus we find that the monks did many noble 
services for mankind. By their tireless labor, deserts 
were made gardens, pestilent swamps became fertile 
farms, and labor gained a new dignity unknown in the 
days of Roman slavery. 

The monks, by their missionary work, did much toward 
Christianizing western Europe. The monasteries be- 
came centres of learning and religion, of quiet work and 



The monks 
as teachers 



200 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 

study, in the midst of dark and stormy times. Had 
not the monks made dihgent search for the best books 
and copied them carefully, much of the great body of 
classical literature would have been lost. They fur- 
nished the only education which was to be had, and gave 
it to rich and poor alike. 
the monks They Were the charitable societies, the mainstay of the 
<s ui ders p^^^. ^^^ ^^^ homelcss, the healers of the sick, the willing 
hosts of weary travellers. They were the great builders, 
also; many of the great churches in Europe were the 
work of their hands. Although later on they lost much 
of their power and influence, we must not forget what 
great good they did among the people of a troubled 
world. 
Love and the 141. The Monks and Their High Christian Ideals. — - 
religion^ They Were faithful, earnest men, and in the work which 
they did for their times, and for the days that were to 
come, they put into practice the highest and finest ideals 
of Christianity. The pagan Greeks and Romans feared 
their gods; the Christian monk had a personal love for 
the one God whom he called his Father. He also be- 
lieved that he could not love God without loving his 
fellow men. While to the pagan, religion had nothing 
to do with daily living, to the Christian monk a personal 
True religion love for Christ could live only as it expressed itself in 
of^io^ve^ ^^^ conduct and in service for others. As to him the cen- 
tral fact in Christianity was love, so true religion was 
the practice of love — love for the low as well as the 
high, for the weak as well as the strong, for the poor 
as well as the rich. Love rendered cheerful service 
to all alike, because in the sight of his Maker every 



THE CHURCH, MONASTERY, AND MONKS 201 

man was equal to every other in his rights as a moral 
being. 

It is not denied that some among the many fell from 
the high ideals of their orders; but we are speaking of 
the holy aspirations, the self-sacrificing service, and the 
good works accomplished by the monks as a whole. 
They made Christianity a great moral power in the Christianity 
Middle Ages — a power which was altogether unknown moral .powe? 
to the Greeks and Romans, but which plays a large part 
in the modern life of to-day. 



THINGS TO REMEMBER 

1. As the Roman Government became weaker the Christian 
Church grew stronger. Just as Rome had been supreme in her 
days of splendor, so did the Roman Cathohc Church become for 
a time supreme in the Middle Ages, not alone as a religious power 
but also as a political power. 2. Monks first appeared in western 
Europe about the middle of the fourth century, and it was not 
long before monasteries soread all over the west. 3. As the life 
of the monks was to be one of self-denial, they vowed to be always 
poor, chaste, and obedient. 4. The monastery was often a great 
feudal estate. 5. The monks rendered a great service to the world 
in copying books. 6. Nearly all English literature down to 
Chaucer's day was written in monasteries, or at least by monks. 
7. We are told that few of the classics of Greek or Roman literature 
would have been left to us had not the monks collected, preserved, 
and copied them in such great numbers. 8. Education was for a 
long time in the hands of monasteries, and by their missionary 
work the monks did much to Christianize Europe. 9. The monks 
were great builders also. Many of the great churches in Europe 
were the work of their hands. 10. They made Christianity a 
great moral power in the Middle Ages. 



202 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



TO THE PUPIL 

1. Explain how it was that the Roman Catholic Church came to be for a 
time supreme in the Middle Ages, not alone as a reUgious power, but as a 
political power. 

2. How did monasteries begin ? 

3. What was St. Benedict's rule ? What were the vows of the monks ? 

4. Tell about hospitality and charity at the famous Cluny. 

5. Imagine yourself on a visit to a monastery and describe the buildings 
and the surroundings of the monastery. 

6. Visit a room where the monks are copying and give an account of 
what you see. How was the copying done ? 

7. In what way did the monks preserve for us the classics of Greek and 
Roman literature ? 

8. How did the monasteries help to make life better in the Middle 
Ages ? 

9. What great differences are there between Christianity and the re- 
ligion of the Greeks and of the Romans ? 



THE CRUSADES AND COMMERCE 

CHAPTER XIX 
THE CRUSADES 

142. The Monks and the Knights in the Crusades. — 

While the work of Christianizing western Europe was 
carried on mainly by the monkS; the church found another 
faithful ally in the knights. AYhen a young man was 
knighted, you remember, the ceremony was largely a 
religious one, in which he pledged himself to defend the 
church and to champion the weak and helpless. In the 
great movement of the Crusades the church needed sol- 
diers as well as monks, and knights and monks served 
side by side. 

143. Pilgrims Go to the Holy Land. — ^To understand 
what the Crusades (wars of the cross) were, and how they 
came about, we must look back over a number of cen- 
turies. From the early days of Christianity, we find that . 
it was the custom in all parts of Christian Europe for 
people to make journeys to the Holy Land, and worship 
where Christ had lived and died. In so doing, they 
thought, they were cleansed from all sin; and should they 
die in Pales-tine, or the Holy Land, they felt sure that they 
would go to heaven. 

The long, tedious journey was made on foot, whether Suffering 
the pilgrim was rich or poor, many taking with them no ^oumly^^^ 
money for their expenses, but trusting to charity for food. 



204 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



The Turks in 
control of 
Jerusalem 



Often they perished from hunger and sickness and lack 
of shelter. In order to protect them from exposure and 
save them from distress, many hospitals and asylums 
were built in lonely places by pious people. 

144. The Turks Get Control of Jerusalem. — During 
the fifth and sixth centuries many thousand Europeans 
journeyed as pilgrims to Palestine. Some settled there 




VIEW OF JERUSALEM, FROM AN OLD ENGRAVING 



permanently, but most of them returned, bringing with 
them holy relics which were regarded with much venera- 
tion. In the seventh century the Arabs, who were 
Mohammedans, swept over Syria and got control of 
Jerusalem. But the pilgrims were not often molested 
by them, for the Arabs also believed that the city was 
sacred. In the eleventh century, however, Palestine was 
overrun by the Turks, a barbarous and fanatical people 



THE CRUSADES 205 

from central Asia, who devoted themselves to plundering 
and destroying. By them the pilgrims were cruelly abused. The Turks 
Their sacred places were profaned; their worship was pUgrkns,® 
interrupted, and they themselves were insulted and some- 
times massacred. All these hardships were reported by 
pilgrims returning to their homes. 

Moreover, in their career of conquest, these fierce Turks 
came into conflict with the Greek (Eastern) Empire ruled 
from Constantinople. At a great battle fought in 1071, 
five years after William the Conqueror won England at 
the battle of Hastings, the Emperor Romanus IV was 
defeated and captured. Nearly all Asia Minor was over- 
run by the Turks, and so horribly devastated that a few 
year slater the crusading armies nearly starved to death 
in a wilderness of thorns and briers, in the heart of what . 
had been the most fertile spot in the empire. 

Later there was danger of the Turks capturing Alexius 
Constantinople itself, and the Emperor Alexius I sent the pip^ 
letters to Pope Urban II at Rome, asking help. The ^^'^^^p 
Pope, you remember, had great power as head of the 
Christian church. These letters reached the Pope about The people 
the time when the people of western Europe were being ^^^"^ 
stirred by the shocking news of Turkish cruelty and inso- 
lence in Jerusalem. So it was just the right moment to 
arouse deep enthusiasm for a movement which should 
have for its purpose the rescue of the Holy Sepulchre 
from the unbelieving Turks. 

145. Pope Urban's Eloquent Sermon. — Pope Urban, A great 
therefore, at a great council which met at Clermont, in people 
•France (1095), preached a sermon on the subject. French 
and German bishops and princes had come to the meet- 



206 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



The duty of 
Christians 



ing; and also a great throng of people — so many that- 
no building could hold them^ and the meeting had to be 
held in the open air. 

Urban told of the abuses which the pilgrims at 'Jerusa- 
lem were enduring, and how the holy places were being 
profaned. It was the duty of the European Christians. 




POPE URBAN II PRESIDING OVER THE COUNCIL OF CLERMONT IN 
1095 AND CALLING THE CHRISTIAN PEOPLE TO THE FIRST 
CnUSADE FOR THE DELIVERANCE OF THE HOLT LAND, AFTER 
AN ENGRAVING OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY 



An appeal to 
soldiers of 
the cross 



who were brave fighters and whose ancestors had done 
brave deeds, to fight now for their religion. They were 
continually warring aniong themselves, he said; but here 
was something better worth struggling for. By uniting 
in this great cause they could win for themselves ever- 
lasting glory in heaven. 

'^Go, then/^ he continued, "on your errand of love, 
which will put out of sight all the ties that bind you to 
the spots which you have called your homes. Youi 



THE CRUSADES 207 

homeS; in truth; they are not. For the Christian, all the 
world is exile, and all the world is at the same time his 
comitr}^ If you leave a rich patrimony here, a better 
patrimony awaits you in the Holy Land. They who die 
wdll enter the mansions of heaven, while the living shall 
pay their vows before the sepulchre of their Lord. You 
are soldiers of the cross; wear, then, on your breasts or on 
your shoulders, the blood-red sign of Him who died for 
the salvation of your souls." 

When he had finished his speech, the people shouted The war-cry 
"It is the will of God. " "It is indeed the will of God!" cru^Lders 
exclaimed Urban. "Now make that your war-cr}\" 
Then he said, "No one need go against his will, but when 
one has vowed to go, let him not turn back until he has 
fulfilled his mission." Thousands immediately took the 
vow and received the sign of the cross. 

Returning from this meeting, people carried the good 
news all through the land, and everywhere the new work 
for Christians was eagerly talked about. 

146. Peter the Hermit and His Followers. — In the Peter the 
north, Peter the Hermit at once began to win followers ^^^^^ 
to go to the Holy Land. According to tradition, this 
small, dark man, with long white beard, barefoot and 
bareheaded, and dressed in a long frock with coarse hood, 
rode on a mule from town to tow^n, preaching to the peo- 
ple about the need for a crusade. As he journeyed, eager 
followers trudged beside him. The people almost wor- 
shipped him. So great was their veneration that they 
believed even the hairs of his mule were sacred, and, what 
was of greater importance, thousands were won over by 
his earnest preaching. 



208 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



Peter the 
Hermit and 
Walter the 
Penniless 



Failure of 
Peter the 
Hermit and 
Walter the 
Penniless 



Instead of waiting for the real armies with experienced 
soldiers which were to start later, a host of common 
people without training or supplies went forth in two 

separate bands. 
One of these, num- 
bering about 15;- 
000,leftFranceun- 
der a knight called 
Walter the Penni- 
less, in the spring 
of 1096. But many 
perished in Bul- 
garia, where they 
had vexed the na- 
tives by pillaging 
— having no mon- 
ey to buy food — 
and only the strag- 
glers reached Con- 
stantinople. There 
they waited for 
Peter. 
Peter, meanwhile, with a so-called army of Germans, 
also had trouble in passing through Bulgaria and Hun- 
gary, and lost many of his men. The rest joined Walter at 
Constantinople in the summer of 1096. The two leaders, 
with the remnants of their bands, crossed over to Civitot, 
a coast city of Asia Minor. But here they were en- 
trapped by the Turkish sultan, David, and only a few 
escaped to await the coming of the crusading armies. 
The rest were either massacred or captured, among those 




PETER THE HERMIT PREACHIXU 



FOLLOWERS 



THE CRUSADES 209 

who perished being Walter. Other bands started out in 
much the same way^ but lost, their lives on account of 
their lawless behavior, for they believed they had the 
privilege of plundering as they pleased. 

147. The Crusaders and Their Motives. — In the The first 
autumn of 1096 Pope Urban probably sent a letter to army^^°^ 
Emperor Alexius, in which he told him that three hundred 
thousand crusaders would soon start from the West on 
their way to the Holy Land. Although we are told that 
the army actually contained one million men, the general 
belief now is that the number was veiy much smaller. 
But before this enthusiastic body begin their long jour- 
ney eastward, let us pause for a moment to discuss their 
motives in setting out upon an expedition that gave 
promise of so much peril and suffering. 

. As already noted, all agree that the leading motive was The leading 
religious. There was a universal desire among Chris- J^ngi'ous 
tians to reconquer the holy places, and rescue the sacred 
city from the desecrating hands of unbelievers. More- 
over, each pilgrim believed, as has been stated, that a 
visit to the holy city would bring him a sure reward by 
removing his sins, and that should he lose his life while 
on the Crusades, all his sins would be forgiven and he 
would go to heaven. 

Other motives were the love of adventure and of travel, other 
These were especially strong in an age when each com- 
munity heard or knew little of what was going on outside 
its narrow boundaries. And still other motives appealed 
to men's self-interests. There were merchants who 
sought trade, and princes and men of high rank who sought 
for new principalities or for other forms of power. But 
whatever their motives, all eagerly joined in a movement 



210 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPj 



that aroused deep emotion and enthusiasm in all sorts 

and conditions of men. 

The suffer- 148. The March of the Crusaders to Jerusalem. — ^The 

and animals main armies set out in four sections. They were led by 

powerful nobles, mainly French and Norman. Most 

went overland by 
different routes, 
although some 
sailed from south- 
ern Italy. There 
was no one leader 
in command, nor 
any systematic 
provision for 
food. When 
marching, they 
kept no order, 
but straggled 
along, the lead- 
ers mounted on 
great horses. 
When fighting, 

THE CRUSADERS BEFORE JERUSALEM t 11 C K 11 1 ^ 11 t O 

dressed in heavy 
armor. Many men and animals perished in the deserts, 
worn out by hardship and lack of food. Others died in 
camp of disease. Those who went by sea had an easier 
journey. 

The four sections, or armies, met at Constantinople, 
but did not proceed at once to Jei-usalem. The leaders 
were bent on conquering cities for themselves in Palestine. 
It was not until June, 1099, that they reached the holy 




The 

crusaders 

reach 

Jerusalem 



THE CRUSADES 211 

city. Of the host which left Europe, there remained 
only about twenty thousand, so many had perished on 
the way. When they came in sight of Jerusalem, they 
all fell upon their knees, and, with tears in their eyes/ 
stooped to kiss the sacred soil. 

149. The Siege and Capture of Jerusalem. — As Jeru- Hunger 
salem was surrounded by a high wall, the crusaders were attack the 
not strong enough to take it by storm. So they sur- crusaders 
rounded it as well as they could and began a siege. 
Thirst attacked them, and hunger. Close by was the 
little spring of Siloe, which bubbled up every second day. 
Men and animals, in their eagerness to get the water, 
crowded so hard that they trampled each other to death 
at its brink, and choked it with corpses. Finally ships 
came bringing food and saved them from famine. 

While the leaders were doing little but quarrel with Peter the 
each other, it is said that Peter the Hermit had a dream, dream 
in which he was told, as he reported, that the city would 
fall if the army should march around it barefoot for nine 
days. At once they set to work to build siege-towers, 
without which they could not hope to take the city. 
Then the whole army set out to march around it, led by 
barefoot priests dressed in white and carrying crosses in 
their hands. As they marched they sang songs and 
uttered prayers, while the Saracens on the walls mocked 
them and abused the cross. 

But of course this method of capturing the city did not The capture 
succeed, and so the siege continued. It is said that when ^ ^^^ ^™ 
hope of victory had almost been given up, a horseman 
was seen on Mt. Olivet, waving a shield. ^^St. George 
the Martyr has come to help us!" cried one of the leaders. 



212 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



Massacre of 
the Saracens 



Saladin 

captures 

Jerusalem 



At this the men took new courage, and soon won the 
city (July, 1099). 

We should like to believe that Christian knights would 
show mercy to their captives, but this was not so. They 
treated the Saracens in Jerusalem, even the women and 

their babies, with 
the most shocking 
cruelty. So ter- 
rible was the mas- 
sacre that we are 
told the streets 
ran deep in blood. 
There was only 
one leader, Count 
Raymond of 
Toulouse, who 
seemed to feel 
any pity. He set 
free the people 
who had fled to 
the Tower of 
David, and al- 
lowed them to 
leave the city. 
Before the army dispersed, they elected one of their 
leaders, Godfrey of Boulogne, a great nobleman in what 
is now Luxembourg, to be ruler of Jerusalem, and called 
him Protector of the Holy Sepulchre. 

150. The Beginning of the Third Crusade. — ^The Second 
Crusade, fifty years later, accomplished nothing, and in 
less than a hundred years after Jerusalem was taken 




VISION OF ST. GEORGE ON MT. OLIVET 



THE CRUSADES 



213 



by the Christians; it was captured (1187) by the great 
Saracen leader, Saladin. As soon as it fell into his 
hands, messengers were sent to report the fact to the 
people in the West. . There was great grief in Europe 
over this sad news. The cardinals at Rome said that, 
if necessary, they 
themselves would 
go and win back 
the holy city. 
Pope Gregory 
VIII called upon 
the kings of Eu- 
rope to cease their 
quarrels and join 
in a crusade. 
Every man in 
England was re- 
quired to pay a 
heavy tax unless 
he marched to 
Jerusalem him- 
self. This was the 
Third Crusade to 
the East. 

The first ruler to start for Jerusalem was Frederick Some 
"Barbarossa" (Red-beard), the German emperor, seventy Ihe^TMrd 
years old. He went by the overland route, but he died Crusade 
on the way. His army divided and went in different 
directions. It was in 1189 that Frederick started. Philip 
Augustus, King of France, and Richard, King of England, 
whom we have already noteji as Richard the Lion-Heart, 
went the next year by sea. 




GODFREY ENTERS JERUSALEM 



214 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



Leopold 
angry with 
Richard 



Richard 
brave but 
not steady 
of purpose 



151. Richard the Lion-Heart in Trouble with Leo- 
pold and Philip. — Richard incurred the hatred of Duke 
Leopold of Austria almost as soon as he reached Asia 
Mmor. When he arrived there, the Christian armies were 

besieging the city 
of Acre. It fell 
soon after, and 
Leopold, so the 
story goes, had set 
up his banner be- 
side Richard's on 
the wall. Rich- 
ard allowed it to 
]3e torn down and 
flung into the 
ditch. Leopold 
returned home at 
once, in great an- 
ger at Richard. 
We shall see how 
he took revenge. 

Richard and 
Philip quarrelled 
constantly. At last Philip w^ent home, but he left his 
army in Palestine. Its leaders opposed Richard in every 
way they could. Although not steady of purpose, he 
was a veiy brave warrior and a really good general. 
Once, it is said, he came on a party of Turks unawares 
and killed twenty of them. He had a brave enemy in 
Saladin, whom the Christians learned to respect very 
deeply... It is said that in a fierce battle between the two 
armies, Saladin heard that Richard had no horse. Heat 




RICHARD AND SALADIN IN BATTLE 



THE CRUSADES 215 

once sent him two very fine Arab steeds, and Richard 
accepted them gratefully. 

152. Richard is Made a Prisoner. — Richard at last Richard 
fell ill before he reached Jerusalem, and was obliged to ^°^^ °°^® 
go home. A treaty was therefore made with Saladin, l^y 
the terms of which the Christians were to have a strip 
of land along the coast of Syria, and the right to trade 
freely. They were also to be allowed to visit Jerusalem 
as much as they wished. Richard hoped to return to 
Palestine, but he was never able to do so. 

His journey homeward was very eventful. He had The capture 
managed to make bitter enemies of several of the most 
powerful leaders of the Crusade, and Leopold had had 
him put under the ban of the Holy Roman Empire as 
a traitor — that is, empowered any one in it to capture 
him and hold him for trial. When nearing Marseilles 
Richard heard that Raymond of Toulouse, a count of the 
empire, was planning to capture him there. To escape 
him he set off in a little private boat with twenty men. 
Some time later, however, a storm drove him on the Aus- 
trian shore and WTecked his boat. The Germans in turn 
were on the watch for him, and he had to hurry through 
the empire in disguise. But he was caught. 

The story is told that he stopped to dine at a little The story of 
inn not far from Vienna. Not wishing any one to sus- ^ ^^^ ^^^ 
pect his high rank, he broiled his own steak; but he forgot 
that on his finger was a costly ring. A servant of Duke 
Leopold came in, noticed the ring, and looked closer at 
its wearer. He soon recognized King Richard, and with- 
out saying a word hsistened away to tell the Duke, who 
came in triumph and: took Richard- captive! This was 



216 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



Blondel 



his revenge for the insult given him by the King at Acre, 
and the wrongs he pretended that the whole Christian 
cause had suffered at the Bang's hands. 
Richard and Richard's English subjects knew that he was in prison, 
but they did not know where. A beautiful story is told 

of how the min- 
strel Blondel set 
out to find him. 
Blondel wandered 
through Europe 
till he reached a 
castle where, peo- 
ple said, was held 
a captive whose 
name no one 
knew. Blondel's 
sweet music at 
once won him fa- 
vor, and when he 
entered the castle 
he kept his eyes 
open to see if he 
could espy the 
captive. One day 
as he was keeping watch he heard a well-known voice 
singing a verse of a song which he and Richard had com- 
posed together long before this time, and which was 
known to them alone. It was the voice of the im- 
prisoned King, who had seen Blondel from his tiny 
window. Blondel went away rejoicing, to carry the news 
of the King's whereabouts. But it was almost a year 




BLONDEL HEARS THE VOICE OF RICHARD 



218 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 

later before Richard was free to go to England; after 
being ransomed by his subjects. 

153. Loss of Life and Property in the Crusades. — The 
third Crusade; hke the first; resulted in great destruction 
of property and of men. As we have seeU; according to 
some estimates nearly one million persons lost their lives 
in the first Crusade. Some believe that not less than five 
hundred thousand of the third Crusade failed to return 
to their homes. ThiS; however; is only part of the story. 
There were eight Crusades in all; as they are commonly 
numbered; the last of which ended in 1270; neaily two 
hundred years after the first began (1095). It is safe to 
say that during those two centuries millions of lives and 
untold treasures were spent in the crusading expeditions 
to the East. 



THINGS TO REMEMBER 

1. The leading motive of the Crusaders was religious. There was 
a unlverst*! desire among Christians to rescue the Holy Sepulchre 
from the unbelieving Turks. 2. The Crusaders captured Jerusa- 
lem in 1099, but Saladin conquered It about a hundred years later. 

3. There were eight Crusades In all, the first of which began In 
1095 and the last ended nearly two hundred years later (1270). 

4. Millions of lives and untold treasures were spent in the crusad- 
ing expeditions to the East. 

TO THE PUPIL 

1. Why did Pilgrims go to the Holy Land ? 

2. In what ways did the Turks abuse the Pilgrims ? 

3. What did Pope Urban mean by calling Christians soldiers of the cross ? 

4. Describe Peter the Hermit as he appeared when preaching to the 
people. 

5. What were the motives of the Crusaders ? 



RESULTS OF THE CRUSADES 219 

6. In what ways did men and animals suffer ? 

7. Who was Richard the Lion-Heart ? Tell the story of his capture and 
of the way in which the minstrel Blondel found him in prison. 

8. Tell what you can about the loss of life and property in the Crusades. 

9. Are you locating on the map all the places mentioned in the text ? 



CHAPTER XX 

RESULTS OF THE CRUSADES 

154. The Love of Travel and the Growth of Trade. — what the 
The results of the Crusades were varied and far-reaching, i^amed^^n 
The most marked of these at first were seen in a rapidly *^^ ^^^^ 
increasing fondness for travel and in the marvellous 
growth of trade. During the two hundred years that 
the Crusades lasted, great numbers of men who otherwise 
would not have left their homes travelled from the coun- 
tries of western Europe to the Orient. There they saw 
cities, peoples, dress, houses, and customs that were all 
strange to them. ]\Iost of these men had known little of 
the great world outside the castle or village in which they 
had spent their lives, and great was their surprise to 
learn that the people of the East had knowledge of many 
things of which the West was ignorant. They were 
astonished to find in the cities of the East a civilization 
higher and finer than their own, and comforts and luxuries 
far exceeding those to which they were accustomed. 

The new experiences of travel awakened new tastes New tastes, 
and a desire to possess at home luxuries enjoyed in the and trade ^^* 
East. Hence an increasing trade in these things sprang 
up between the East and the West, which soon brought 
about many new conditions in Europe. 



220 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



k constant 155- Italian Cities Profit by the Trade with the East. 

the^demand — ^'^ ^^^^ ^^^ benefit of this trade was felt mainly in 
fo^^sWps and Italy. Italy did not take an active part in the fighting 
of the CrusadeS; for she sent no warriors to the East; but 
her cities furnished ships and transportation for Cru- 



sailors 







1BMp^ 



^-^ml ^^^ 



W:^'^-^--^^L^kfLj^ ^^^. 



Insist j^fs^ 




VENICE, WHICH PLAYED SDCH AN IMPORTANT PART IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF 
COMMERCE 



saders who went by water. Although at first the routes 
travelled were overland, later they were either partly or 
wholly by water. There was, therefore, a constant in- 
crease in the demand for ships and sailors, and this was 
met by stronger and larger ships manned by abler sea- 
men. These were supplied mainly by Venice, Genoa, and 
other Italian cities, who exacted good pay for their ser- 
vices and thus made the Crusades a source of great profit. 



RESULTS OF THE CRUSADES 221 

From the ever-increasing trade of which we have just Western 
spoken, these cities acquired vast wealth. In time great ETstern^ ^° 
merchant fleets sailed from Italy, carrying such Western soods 
products as grain, oil, honey, minerals, metal, soap, wool, 
cloth, leather, and furs. For the East, partly because 
many Crusaders had settled there, was much in need of 
these things. In Syria and Egypt the Western products . i 

were exchanged for silks, spices, perfumes, precious j 

stones, hangings, rich cloths, carpets, rugs, porcelains^ 
and other products which had been brought by caravans 
from India, Arabia, and Persia. Loaded with these 
goods, the merchant-ships made their way homeward 
across the Mediterranean. This was a perilous journey; 
for frequently the vessels were manned by unskilled sea- 
men, and pirates were many and daring. 

156. The Growth of Commerce in Europe. — On reach- Overland 
Ing Italy the cargoes were stored in Venice and Genoa, and fairs 
whence eventually they were distributed throughout 
Europe. Overland routes led to important centres in 
France and Germany, where commerce was carried on 
at great fairs, held at fixed seasons. Here the importers 
sold to wholesale merchants. Retail trade went on in 
smaller places, although much of it was in the hands of 
peddlers, who carried their packs from village to village, 
as a rule travelling on foot, though sometimes on horses. 

If we had been living in an English village at that time, The peddler 
we should probably have looked with some eagerness for ^^ ^ ^^^ 
the coming of the peddler. He liked well to arrive on 
Sunday or a saint's day, when the scattered villagers had 
gathered together for worship. After the service he 
would unstrap his pack outside the church, display its 



222 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 

contents; and try to win buyers of his wares. In one of 
the manuscripts of those times we have pictures of what 
such a pack contained. There were gloves, a man's hat, a 
woman's kerchief, hose, a mirror, a woman's head-dress, 
a man's hood, a purse, a belt, a musical pipe, slippers, 
and other things. Having made his sales, the peddler 
would close his pack, slip it over his shoulder by a strap, 
and be off for the next place. 

After a time water routes to the north were established. 
Merchant-ships ventured out of the Mediterranean into 
the Atlantic, and sailed around to northern Europe. 
Venice sent ships every year to England and the Nether- 
lands, the latter countiy becoming the centre of this trade 
between the north and the south, with Bruges the chief 
city. Gradually, with the growth of manufactures, the 
north developed a large commerce of its own and sent 
its ships to the Mediterranean. 

157. What Was Learned from the East and the Moors. 
— Along with articles of commerce, Venice brought from 
the East the art of making silk and glass, and began 
to manufacture them herself. Oriental dyes also were 
brought in, and probably the use of windmills was 
learned in the Orient. From the Moors in Spain was 
obtained a knowledge of gunpowder and artillery, as 
well as the art of making wine, stamped leather, fine 
steel armor, steel weapons, and other objects made of 
metal. These new industries all increased the volume 
and variety of the articles of trade. Men's ideas of com- 
merce broadened, the field extended. Soon we recog- 
nize the beginnings of a world commerce which was to 
lead to momentous results. 



RESULTS OF THE CRUSADES 223 

158. The Breaking Down of Feudalism. — This growth The barons 
of commerce brought about a great change which had fa^^d^owuers 
already been begun by the Crusades. It was the break- ^^^^e their 

•^ ° . *^ power 

ing down of feudahsm. How this happened^ we need 
here explain only in a veiy general way. In France, for 
exampfe; barons often sold their lands and their feudal 
rights and privileges in order to get money to pay the 
expense of the long- and costly journey to the Holy Land. 
In this way they lost their power as lords in their own 
countiy. Many other barons and great land-owners were 
killed; and hence their landed possessions passed into 
other hands. 

But what the feudal lords lost was gained by the King What the 
or by the people, who lived either in towns and cities or lo^t^fhe^^^^ 
in villages on the great feudal estates. Moreover, with ^g^^^o^f 
the increase in the growth of trade, the guilds and the gained 
towns-people insisted, as we have seen, upon having 
charters which would give them certain definite rights, 
ending at last in their freedom from the control of men 
who had practically owned the town. The serfs, also, 
shared in the advance of popular rights. For as there 
came to be more trade and more money as well, the serfs 
could pay for the use of the land in money rather than in 
personal service and in produce. Thus they became free 
laborers, and in time many came to own their own land. 

We have already spoken of the vast empire of Charle- increasing 
magne, and of the fact that after his death this empire throngs 
was broken into fragments, or separate kingdoms. But 
you should know that some of these were very large, and 
furnished the foundation for the building later of great 
nations, like France and Germany. For the kings of 



224 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



Taxes take 
the place of 
personal 
service 



Modern 
states take 
the place of 
feudalism 



these several countries took into their own hands much 
of the governing power which in feudal times had been 
held by the owners of feudal estates. 

With increase of trade and wealth the King could also 
get from his subjects money in the form of taxes, instead 
of the personal service which 
he had received in feudal 
days. With this money he 
could build up and keep in 
order roads and bridges nec- 
essary for commerce. He 
could support a standing 
army not only to fight for him. 
and to defend his kingdom , 
but also to help maintain 
law and order and protect 
life and property. For this 
purpose the towns and cities 
gladly paid the government 
large sums, because their 
increasing trade and wealth 
needed that security and pro- 
tection which only a strong a door-way m the alhambra. the al- 

- HAMBRA WAS THE FORTRESS PALACE OF 

central government could the moorish kings at granada, spain 
supply. And just as the 

standing army took the place of the feudal forces, so the 
national courts took the place of the feudal courts. Thus 
did feudalism give way, and modern states like France, 
Germany, England, Spain, and Portugal take its place. 

159. The Revival of Learning. — Still another result of 
the Crusades, brought about largely by changes in com- 




RESULTS OF THE CRUSADES 225 

merce and government, was the revival of learning. At The knowi- 
no time during the Dark Ages had the light of ancient Greeks and 
learning utterly failed. The monks, you remember, had fo^g^ttS^^^ 
done what they could to keep it burning, and in some 
places schools had been kept up. But in general the 
knowledge of the Greeks and Romans had been forgotten 
in the ignorance, poverty, disorder, and absorption in 
fighting which pervaded the Dark Ages. 

Now, however, a rapid change was going on. The The Cru- 
better order and leisure to think, the growth of com- the revival 
merce, of towns, of new industries, the knowledge of other ^^ learning 
lands and their arts of living, stimulated thought and 
the love of travel, and there was a keen desire to recover, 
or revive, all that had been lost. This the Crusades 
helped directly to do, for they brought back from the 
East not only luxuries and comforts, but knowledge and 
ideas that lifted men to higher living and thinking. 

At the time the Crusaders were coming into touch Where the 
with the cities of the East, many of which contained a dvmiation 
half-million people each, the Arabian civilization was ^o^^shed 
the highest in the world. Of this we probably get the 
general atmosphere in the life pictures of the "Arabian 
Nights." We should bear in mind, however, that the 
people among whom this civilization flourished included 
more than those living on the eastern shores of the Med- 
iterranean. For they had spread over the whole coast 
of northern Africa and nearly all Spain, though in the 
time of the Crusades they had been driven out of the 
northern part of Spain. Not only was their commerce 
extensive, for their caravans went to many countries, 
and ships carried their merchandise to all parts of the 



226 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



Universities, 
libraries, 
and Greek 
science 



The great 
service of 
the Arabs to 
the world 



world as it was known at that time, but the arts flourished 
as well. They had beautiful architecture, which included 
splendid mosques and palaces. No people has ever 
excelled them in their fine metal work or in the making 
of fine fabrics. 

Moreover, their method of cultivating the land was 
scientific and their system of irrigation was good. Their 
] earn i no;, also, was advanced. One of their large univer- 
sities, we are told, 
was attended by 
twelve thousand stu- 
dents. They also 
had libraries, some of 
them containing sev- 
eral hundred thou- 
sand volumes. In 
their conquest of 
much of the Greek 
Empire they became 
acquainted with the 
works of the Greeks 
and studied earnestly 
Greek science ; and 
they added ideas of 
their own to what 
they learned. 

Thus while Europe 
was passing through the Dark Ages, with no knowledge 
of the science of the Greeks, this knowledge was being 
preserved and advanced by the Arabs, who were to give 
it back again to the West. This was their great service 




GALLERir uF THE COURT OP LIONS, 
THE ALHAMBRA 



RESULTS OF THE CRUSADES 227 

to the world. They did not invent many new ways of 
doing thingS; but by preserving, improving, and handing 
down to those who should follow them the knowledge 
and the arts and sciences which they had learned from 
other peoples, especially the Greeks, they did their most 
important work. 

When the quickening life of the West, therefore, turned a rebirth 
to the study of ancient works, interest centred not only °^ i^^^^^i^g 
in those of the Romans, but of the Greeks as well. This 
great awakening had its beginning in Italy, where the 
old learning had never really died out, and where the 
wealth and independence of the cities gave the new move- 
ment great power. It ushered in a period of literature, 
art, and science, which was one of the most brilliant the 
world has known; for it was not only a revival of pagan 
learning, but a lebirth, as it was called, of learning in 
the Christian world. 

1 60. The Crusades a Turning-Point in History. — All The 
these changes — the enlargement of commerce, the growth and^greTt 
of towns, the breaking down of feudahsm, the building changes 
up of modern nations with strong central governments, 
the revival of learning — were not created by the Cru- 
sades nor completed by them; but the Crusades gave a 
wonderful impulse to ch&nges already begun and greatly- 
hastened their progress. 

They were a great common movement affecting all The 
Europe, and were shared in by all nations and by people m?deraTife^ 
of eveiy rank. With the Crusades the period of isolation 
largely passed away. All peoples were moved by similar 
motives, desires, hopes, and interests, r.nd there was 
brought about such a unity in the Christian world as had 



228 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 

not before existed. With the growth of common inter- 
ests and national feehng, modern hfe had begun. The 
Crusades were therefore a turning-point in history. 



THINGS TO REMEMBER 

1. Two marked results of the Crusades were seen in a rapidly 
increasing fondness for travel and in the marvellous growth of 
trade. 2. Venice, Genoa, and other Italian cities acquired vast 
wealth from this trade with the East. 3. The growth in commerce 
brought about the breaking down of feudalism. 4. Another result 
of the Crusades was the revival of learning. 5. With the growth of 
common Interests and national feeling which were developed by the 
Crusades modern life began. Hence the Crusades were a turning- 
point in history. 

TO THE PUPIL 

1. Be sure that you know clearly what were the two most marked 
results of the Crusades. 

2. Do you understand why there came to be an ever-increasing trade 
between Europe and the East? 

3. Tell what you can about the following: Overland routes; fairs; the 
peddler and his pack; trade in northern Europe. 

4. What was learned from the East and from the Moors? 

5. In what ways did the growth of commerce help to break down feu- 
daUsm? 

6. What is meant by the revival of learning ? 

7. What was the great service of the Arabs to the world ? 

8. Can you tell in your own language in what ways the Crusades were 
a tiuming-point in history ? 



THE DISCOVERY OF THE WESTERN WORLD 

CHAPTER XXI 
COLUMBUS AND THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA 

i6i. The Love of Travel. — We have already referred 
to love of travel as one of the marked results of the 
Crusades. It was due in part to the wide spread of com- 
merce and in part to the general awakening of people's 
minds through the revival of learning. Men became 
specially eager to know more of the Far East and to profit 
by its riches. Even before the Crusades ended; European 
travellers began to make extensive explorations in Asia. 

162. Marco Polo and His Travels. — ^The most famous Marco Polo 
to us of these travellers was Marco Polo, a Venetian^ *^ ^^^^^ 
though there were many others nearly as 
well known at the time. Toward the end 
of the thirteenth century, he went with 
his father and uncle — who had been mer- 
chants of Venice^ but had been driven by 
accident to live in China — to the court of 
Kublai Khan, the ruler of the Mongols at 
Peking. While there, Marco learned the 
languages of the empire, and the Klian, 
taking him into his service, sent him on 
many important missions through China and other parts 
of Asia. 

After dwelling seventeen years with the Mongols, the The home- 
Polos started for home. Putting to sea at a port near oMhe Polos 

229 




MARCO POLO 



230 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



The three 
trade routes 



Peking, they sailed south to Sumatra, past southern 
India and up the Persian Gulf to the Euphrates River, 
and thence overland on their way to Venice. A few 
years after his return, Marco Polo gave to the world an 
account of his travels and of what he had heard of the 
Marco Polo's countries and islands of the Far East. Wonderful were 
his^traveis his tales of golden palaces, of beautiful rivers crossed by 
marble bridges, and of countless treasures of gold, sil- 
ver, and jewels. Although much that he said was mis- 
taken, and the whole added little or nothing to men's 
knowledge of geography, yet, with what other travel- 
lers wrote, it increased the interest in those distant 
lands. 

163. The Trade Routes of Genoa and Venice with 
the East. — The glowing and romantic accounts of the 
East appealed to men not only because of their novelty, 
but because of the wealth which merchants were heaping 
up from extensive trade with that region. This trade 
A^as carried on mainly over three routes : one through the 
Caspian Sea, the Black Sea, and Constantinople; another 
through the Persian Gulf and the Euphrates valley to 
Antioch; and a third through the Indian Ocean and the 
Red Sea. All these routes by which goods were brought 
from India, China, Japan, and other Oriental countries 
led to Genoa and Venice, the two great rivals in the com- 
merce of western Europe. 

The overland part of the journey was made by cara- 
vans. Many traders would band together to protect 
themselves from robbers, and to help one another in 
getting such necessaries as provisions and water. This 
was done because for lone: distances there were no settled. 



Why cara- 
vans were 
necessary 



COLUMBUS AND THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA 231 

governments or none strong enough to protect travellers, 
no roadS; and no inns to afford shelter. 

Even now in western Asia merchandise is carried largely The 
by caravans. Camels are generally used to transport ^^^^^^^ 
heavy goods, especially when the route stretches over 
very dry, level, and sandy regions. The camels, which 




A SECTION OF A CARAVAN. THE CAMELS HAVE BEEN UNLOADED AND ARE RESTING 



in a single caravan number from forty to one thousand, 
walk in single file, forty or more harnessed together, ropes 
made of hair connecting one beast with another. The 
leader wears bells, and is gayly decked with trappings 
and tassels of various colors, while in advance of the 
long line walks an unladen ass, either for good-luck 
or as a guide. If the pathway is steep and rocky, 
mules and asses are used instead of camels to carry the 
burdens. 

164. The Great Commercial Problem. — At the best, The Turks 
these routes were always costly and dangerous; but when overland 
in 1453 the Turks captured Constantinople, the route ^°"^®^ 
through the Black Sea was cut off altogether. This 



232 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



Portugal and 
Spain seek 
the ocean 
route 



Belief of 

eminent 

geographers 



was a great blow to Genoa, for she depended almost 
wholly on the northern route, and at once her commerce 
began to fall off. Venice, more fortunate than Genoa, 
still received goods by the southern route through Eg}^pt, 
and reached the height of her commercial power. As 
the Turks extended their sway over western Asia, the 
other overland routes were threatened, and even the 
Mediterranean was made unsafe by Turkish pirates. 

This all happened at a time when there was an increas- 
ing demand for Eastern goods, and the rising nations 
of Europe were most eager for a share in the trade. The 
great commercial problem, then, was to find an ocean 
route to India, China, and Japan, and thus escape the 
dangers of the overland traffic. Portugal and Spain, 
being the most powerful maritime nations, of that time, 
naturally took the lead in the search for this all-water 
route; and Prince Henry of Portugal, now called ^^The 
Navigator," did more than any other man, perhaps, to 
further the movement. 

165. Prince Henry and the All- Water Route. — Portu- 
guese sea-captains had already, in their encounters with 
the Moors, begun to make some headway down the 
western coast of Africa, and Prince Henry set in motion 
means which would encourage them to venture farther. 
For it was the belief of many that India could be reached 
in this way, although some eminent geographers thought 
that Africa extended so far to the south that it was im- 
possible to reach Asia by sailing in that direction. But 
no one could be certain until the trial was made, and 
in that day it required much faith and courage to put the 
matter to the test. 




COLUMBUS AND THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA 233 

Sailors v/ere afraid to venture out into the ^'Sea of why sailors 
Darkness/' as the Atlantic was called. They beheved tenulJe^^on 
that in it were terrible monsters waitino; to devour t^® ,^®^ ^^ 

^ Darkness 

them; that in the region of the equator was a belt of 
fire, and that the water there was steaming hot. But 
Prince Henry undertook the task of finding out all that 
was possible about these unknown re- 
gions. He started a school; where he 
gathered about him able teachers and 
seamen who wished to learn the art of 
navigation. He also sent out captain 
after captain, each of whom ventured a 
little farther than those who had gone 
before. 

All of these men were moved by Prince Slow 
Henry's daring spirit, but the progress ^^^^^^^^ 
was slow. At the time of his death, 1463, only about 
one-fourth of the distance to the southern coast of Africa 
had been explored. But even though that wise and 
noble prince did not win the prize he sought, those who 
came after him profited by his labors. 

1 66. The Famous Voyage of Diaz. — ^The man who A stormy 
finally reached the most southern point of Africa was ^^^^^^ 
Bartholomew Diaz. In August, 1486, he started out on 
a voyage which was to make him famous. After sailing 
nearly four hundred miles south of the tropic of Capri- 
corn, his vessels were blown by heavy winds steadily 
southward for thirteen days, during which he saw no 
land. At the end of this time he sailed directly eastward, 
expecting, of course, that he would reach the coast. But, 
since he was south of the most southern point of Africa^ 
this did not happen. 



PRINCE HBNRT 



234 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



The return 
to Lisbon 



He therefore steered his course northward, and came 
to a landing more than two hundred miles east of the 
Cape of Good Hope. From that point he sailed about 
four hundred miles farther east; when his men stub- 




VESSELS OF THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY 



The Cape of 
Good Hope 



Spain in 
search of the 
ocean route 



bornly refused to continue the voyage. He was obliged, 
therefore, to turn homeward. On his way back to Lisbon, 
which he reached in December, 1487, he saw the head- 
land of southern Africa. This he. called the Cape of 
Storms; but the King was so pleased with the good news 
of the discovery that he said, ^^It shall be called not the 
Cape of Storms, but the Cape of Good Hope." And 
he was right, for the promise of the opening of an all- 
water route filled the Portuguese with ^^good hope" for 
the future. 

167. Columbus and His Plans. — But Portugal was 
not alone in the search for an ocean route to India, China, 
and Japan. Spain, as we have already said, was also 
seeking the same goal, and the man through whom she 
achieved success was Christopher Columbus. 



COLUMBUS AND THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA 235 




CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS 



Let us acquaint ourselves with him more closely and Columbus 
follow some of his adventures. He was an Itahan^ born ^* ^^^bon 
in Genoa. After he had followed the sea from boyhood 
and become a distinguished mariner and sea-fighter, 
we find him at the age of thirty-five or 
thereabouts in Lisbon, where he was then 
making his home. Here lived his brother 
Bartholomew, who had been with Diaz on 
his famous vovage of discovery, and here 
were many sailors also. From them he must 
have learned about the voyages which the 
Portuguese had been making in their at- 
tempt to round the southern point of Af- 
rica; indeed, some believe that he may have 
been on some of these voyages himself. 

But Columbus felt sure that there was a shorter way His plan of 
to India than the route around Africa. It had already india?y 
become known that there was water to the east of Asia; ^^*®^ 
and since there was water to the west of Europe, and the 
earth was round, which he believed with many geogra- 
phers of his day, he reasoned that by sailing directly 
across the Atlantic Ocean he could reach India. The 
more he pondered over this scheme, the more he longed 
to carry it out. At length he laid his plan before King 
John of Portugal. The King hstened, but would not 
agree to give aid. 

Having failed to gain support from the King of Portu- Columbus 
gal, Columbus started for the court of Spain. He found hearfng 
it no easy matter to get a hearing, however; for the 
King and Queen, Ferdinand and Isabella, were engaged in 
war with the Moors, whom they were driving out of Spain. 



236 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



The war 

between the 
Spaniards 
and the 
Moors 



The Moors 
driven out of 
Spain 



Columbus 
gets a 
hearing 



This war had been going on at intervals for centuries. 
Spain had been so occupied with it that she had taken 
no part in the Crusades. It waS; in fact; a crusade within 
her own borders^ for the Moors were a part of the great 

Mohammedan world to 
which the Arabians and 
Turks also belonged. They 
had the same high civili- 
zation and culture as the 
Arabians, and a powerful 
government. But the 
Spaniards at last captured 
their beautiful city of 
Granada and defeated 
them in battle. 

A little more than a 
century later, under Philip 
II, of whom we shall hear 

TABLET MARKING THE HOUSE IN GENOA WHERE agalU, thC MOOrS WCrG 

CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS WAS BORN /> Oi • mi 

driven out oi fepam. I he 
Spaniards believed they were ridding the country of 
heathen hordes; but in driving out the Moors, who were 
more highly civilized than themselves, they lost much 
of their prosperity and glory, which they have never 
since regained. 

1 68. Columbus Gets an Opportunity to Carry Out 
His Plan. — When at length Columbus obtained the hear- 
ing which he had patiently sought for seven long years, 
the King and Queen still kept him waiting for an answer. 
Some of their advisers reported unfavorably, while others 
reported the scheme as perfectly sound. Ferdinand 




COLUMBUS AND THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA 237 

was absorbed in the war. But Isabella was interested 
because it was the purpose of Columbus to devote the 
wealth he should obtain to a great crusade to the Holy 
Land; and this was to be made in the name of Spain. 
When the war drew to a close, Columbus was given 




COLUMBUS AT THE COURT OF KING FERDINAND AND QUEEN ISABELLA 



another hearing. But he demanded so much for his 
services as leader of the expedition that no agreement 
was reached. ]\Iuch displeased, he left the Queen's pres- 
ence, and in despair started off to seek aid in France. 

On his way out of the country he stopped at the Con- Columbus 
vent of St. Mary, and there talked over his plans with men^^and^ 
the prior. The prior was so deeply impressed that he ^®^^^^^ 
wrote at once to Queen Isabella, with whom he had 
influence, and she summoned Columbus back to court. 
This time she promised men and vessels for the expedi- 



238 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 




1 



THE CON\-ENT OF ST. MARY, NEAR PALOS, WHERE 
COLUMBUS STOPPED 



tion. At last he was to have an opportunity to carry 

out the plan which he had cherished for so many years. 
History tells us 

that Columbus at 

that time was a 

fine-looking man 

— tall, strong, and 

well iormed. He 

had a noble face, 

with keen blue 

e^^es. His hair, al- 

read3"white,fellin 

long locks about 

his shoulders; and 

although plainly 

dressed, his courteous manner made him pleasing to all 

whom he met. 

169. The Voyages of the Northmen. — Before taking 

up the story of this voyage, let us pause to notice some 

other voyages that had already been made across the 

Atlantic far to the north. Long before this time, proba- 
bly in the tenth or eleventh century, when the Vikings 

were attacking 
England; other 
Northmen had 
voyaged w e s t - 
ward. Hardy sail- 
ors from Norway 
came at that time 
to Iceland and 
Greenland. 




ROOM OCCUPIED BY COLUMBUS IN THE CONVENT OF 
ST. MARY 



240 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



Leif 

Ericsson on 
the coast of 
Labrador 



Leif's 
brother in 
Vinland 



The 

Northmen's 
discovery not 
important 



The sailors 
afraid to go 



The three 
vessels 



Some of these daring explorers reached America. The 
first was Leif Ericsson^ who, in the year 1000; with five 
hundred and thirty men, touched upon the coast of 
Labrador. The chronicles of Iceland call the country 
Vinland; from the wine his company was said to have 
made there. In the spring he went back to Greenland 
with a load of timber. 

The following year Leif's brother sailed to Vinland, 
where he passed two winters. In later years other 
Northmen visited the coast, but none remained long, 
for the natives were unfriendly and attacked them. Vin- 
land, therefore, was soon forgotten. 

This discovery was not important, for no colon}^ was 
planted and no attempt made to follow up the discovery. 
Besides, Vinland was supposed to be an island off in the 
unknown northern sea; and when Columbus set sail on 
his first great voyage of discovery, no one thought of 
that island any more than of ar.y other lost island thou- 
sands of miles away. 

170. The Trials of Columbus. — Returning to the 
story of Columbus, we find that in his struggle to gain 
the support of the Queen, and even when he was ready 
to sail, his trials had only begun; for the sailors were 
afraid to go, and it was difficult to find a company of 
men who would venture on the Sea of Darkness out of 
sight of land. 

In course of time, however, three small vessels with one 
hundred and twenty men were ready to start. The ves- 
sels were not larger than many of the fishing-boats of to- 
day. The flagship was called the Santa Maria, and the 
other two were the Pinta and the Nina. 



COLUMBUS AND THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA 241 

A half-hour before sunrise on Friday morning, August 
3; 1492, the little fleet sailed from the port of Palos. It 
was a sorrowful time for the poor sailors and their friends. 
All believed that the vessels would certainly be lost and 




A sorrowful 
time 



DEPARTURE OP COLUMBUS FROM PALOS 



each other 



that the sailors would never again see home and friends. 
When, on September 6, they were out of sight of land, 
the sailors wept like children. 

Fears chased each other in quick succession. The ships Fears chase 
had not sailed far before the compass needle no longer 
pointed to the north star. This distressed the sailors. A 
few days later they entered a vast stretch of sea-weed. 
On every side, almost as far as the eye could reach, the 
w^ater was covered with a green carpet of weeds and grass. 
They feared the vessels would stick fast in this grass, or run 
upon rocks lying just below the surface of the sea, and that 
they themselves would be shipwrecked. But the wind blew 
up a little stronger, and the vessels passed on in safety- 



242 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



Columbus's 
life in 
danger 



The landing 
of Columbus 



Columbus 
thinks he is 
in the East 
Indies 



The people 

welcome 

Colimibus 



This danger over, others loomed up. They entered the 
belt of trade winds which blew them steadily westward. 
''We are lost!" the sailors cried. ''We can never see 
our friends again." They begged Columbus to turn 
about and steer for home. He refused. They became 
angry. They called him crazy and threatened his life. 
It was planned to push him overboard some night when 
he was looking at the stars. Columbus knew that his 
life was in danger; but the greater the peril, the more 
firmly he set himself to meet it with a strong will and 
high purpose. 

171. The Discovery of Land. — At length, after ten 
weeks of weary sailing, about two o'clock on the morning 
of October 12, land was sighted not far away. This was 
an island of the Bahama group. Early in the morning 
boats were lowered and everybody w^ent ashore. Colum- 
bus, dressed in a rich robe of bright scarlet, bore aloft 
the royal standard. Upon reaching the shore, he knelt, 
kissed the earth, gave thanks to God for the safe voyage, 
and took possession of the land in the name of King Fer- 
dinand and Queen Isabella. 

Columbus called the island on which he landed San 
Salvador, which means Holy Saviour. Continuing his 
voyage, he sailed along the coast of Cuba and Hayti. 
He thought this was Japan and the East Indies, and was 
therefore on the lookout foi the cities where he expected 
to find the gold, spices, and precious stones which he so 
eagerly sought. He called the natives Indians, or the 
people of the Indies. 

172. Columbus Returns to Spain. — Having built a 
small fort on the island which he named Hispaniola 



COLUMBUS AND THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA 243 

(Hayti); he left there forty men as the first Spanish 
colony in the New World, and sailed for Spain. After 
a stormy voyage, he cast anchor in the harbor of Palos 
about the middle of March, 1493. Great was the joy 




COLUMBUS TAKING POSSESSION OP THE LAND IN THE NAME OF KING FERDINAND 
AND QUEEN ISABELLA 

of the people that day. They stopped all business to 
give their welcome to the man who had won success for 
himself and Spain. His praise was now on every man's 
lips. 

He was summoned to Barcelona to attend the court. The "idle 
When he entered the presence of King Ferdinand and nowT^eat 
Queen Isabella, they honored him by rising, and when ™^^ 
he knelt to kiss their hands, they commanded him to rise 
and sit with them as an equal. The ''idle dreamer" 
was now one of the great men of Spain. Everybody 



244 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



was eager to share his honor and his fame. There was 
no longer any difficulty in getting men to join him, for 
all imagined that they would return with great wealth. 




THE TRIUMPHAL ENTRY OK COLUMBUS INTO BARCELONA 



Columbus 
plans to 
found a 
colony 



His first 
colony lost 



173. Columbus Makes a Second Voyage. — When he 
sailed again, in September, 1493, he had with him a fleet 
of seventeen vessels and fifteen hundred men, including 
many from the best families in Spain. As Columbus 
planned to found a colony, he took with him on this 
expedition not only horses, mules, and cattle, but vines, 
vegetables, and many kinds of seeds. 

He expected to find the men he had left the winter 
before in Hispaniola; but on reaching the place where the 



COLUMBUS AND THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA 245 

colony had been, there was no one to welcome him. Not 
one of the forty men remained; the fort had been torn 
down and the remnant of food destroyed. 

A new site was chosen for settlement, and a little Coiumbus 
town, called Isabella in honor of the Queen, was built ^° ^^^^^^^ 
and surrounded with a wall. After a time Columbus 
started out to explore the new country. But trouble 
met him on every hand. The Indians were not always 
friendly, and his own men were often unwilling to obey 
him. At the end of three years he sailed back to Spain, 
lea\dng the settlement in a wretched condition. The 
voyage was a long and trying one. All the food on 
board was used up, and he and his men were almost 
starved when at last they reached home. Columbus 
received a kindly welcome at court, and was told that he 
should have more ships for another vo3^age. But en- 
thusiasm had died out, and other things caused delay. 

174. The Third Voyage. — It was not until 1498 that Columbus 
he set sail on the third voyage. This time he landed thrnorth^^ 
on an island which he called Trinidad, and coasted along ^^^^ °^ ' 

^ South 

the northern shore of South America. But when he re- America 
turned to the little town he had built on his preceding 
voyage he found things were going badly. Trouble 
had arisen with the Indians and more serious difficulties 
among the settlers themselves. 

For two long years Columbus tried to make things Many people 
right, but he was not successful. Many people were cohimbus^^ 
beginning to lose faith in him, because they did not get 
the wealth they had supposed they would find by join- 
ing in his expeditions. Others were jealous of him and 
made plans for his ruin. 



246 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



" Admiral of 
Mosquito 
Land " 



Columbus 
in chains 



The belief 
that the 
world is 
roimd 



Meantime Vasco da Gama, of whom we shall speak 
later, had returned from his famous voyage to India 
wdth some of the real wealth of the Far East. He had 
sailed under the Portuguese flag and had succeeded in 
getting what the Spaniards sought. To their minds 
Columbus had miserably failed, and they called him the 
"Admiral of Mosquito Land.'' 

At length an officer was sent from Spain to examine 
into the affairs of the colony. He was unfriendly, and 
when he reached the settlement he put Columbus in 
chains and sent him back to Spain in dishonor. Colum- 
bus, however, still held the favor of his sovereigns, who 
sent him on another voyage of discovery. 

175. The Last Voj^age of Columbus. — In 1502 he 
sailed on his fourth voyage, coasting along the eastern 
shore of Central America. But he was not able to accom- 
plish much, and was at last shipwrecked on the island of 
Jamaica, where he spent a long year of hardship and 
misery. Finally he sailed for Spain, where he arrived 
but a short time before Queen Isabella, his only pro- 
tector, died. For eighteen months he lived broken in 
health and cast down in spirit. On May 20, 1506, he 
died, not knowing that he had discovered the New 
World. 

176. The Greatness of Columbus. — Columbus was 
one of the great men of history and one of the most 
remarkable of his time. He was not alone in believing 
that the earth was round ; for that was believed by the 
wise men of his day, who had their knowledge from 
the Greeks. It was one of the scientific truths that had 
been spreading with the revival of learning. 



I 



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248 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 

The worthy But his greatness lay in the fact that he had the daring 
Columbus^ spirit and self-reliance, with the trained seaman's skill 
and the power of command, to make his belief practical. 
He was willing to face the danger and the hardship of 
an uncharted voyage on an unknown sea. And his 
motive was for the advance of science and the good of 
the church. It was his purpose to lead a crusade to the 
Holy Sepulchre with the wealth he should obtain in the 
new-found lands. But he died poor, not knowing even 
the grandeur of his great discovery. It was a glorious 
fulfilment of the new spirit of exploration. 

THINGS TO REMEMBER 

1. The reports of European travellers increased the interest of 
the people in the Far East. 2. The three overland routes by which 
goods were brought from the Far East led to Genoa and Venice. 
3. When the Turks cut off the northern route, and threatened the 
other two, the great commercial problem was to find an ocean route 
to India, China, and Japan. 4. Diaz, by sailing east, discovered 
the Cape of Good Hope in 1487. 5. Columbus, in trying to reach 
India by sailing west, discovered the New World in 1492. But he 
thought he had reached the Indies. 

TO THE PUPIL 

1. How did travellers increase interest in the far-off lands? 

2. Why was it necessary for the rising nations of Europe to find an 
ocean route to the Far East ? 

3. Who was Diaz and what did he accomphsh? 

4. What was the great plan of Columbus ? 

5. Tell what you can about his difficulties in getting help to carry out 
his plan. 

6. Imagine yourself with Columbus on his first voyage and give an 
account of his trials. What do you admire in him ? 

7. Trace on the map his voyages and also that of Diaz. 

8. Do you see clearly how trade with the East led to the discovery of 
America ? 



THE SUCCESSORS OF COLUMBUS 



249 



CHAPTER XXII 
THE SUCCESSORS OF COLUMBUS 

177. Americus Vespucius and the Naming of America. The 
— From what you have learned in the preceding chapter, vespudus* 
3^ou would naturally expect that the New World would be 
named after Columbus. The reason why it was not can 
be told in a few words. After Colum- 
bus had led the wa}^, there were many ex- 
plorers who sailed for the West. Among 
them was Americus Vespucius, a native 
of Florence.' How many voyages he made 
and just when he made them we do not 
know. But some believe that one was ^ 
made in 1501-2, when he skirted the 
coast of Brazil and perhaps a part of the 
eastern coast of South America to the 
south of Brazil. At all events he wrote 
letters describing what he said he had seen in his voy- 
aging, and his description was the first printed account 
of the main-land of the New World. 

Up to that time Europe, Asia, and Africa were known The 
as the three parts of the world, and it was believed that 
to the south there might be another unknown continent 
which would make a fourth part. As Americus Vespu- 
cius called the land which he described ^^The New World,'' 
meaning by this the fourth part, some geographers be- 
lieved that he had proved its existence. In a treatise on 
geography published a few years later, it was suggested, 
therefore, that this fourth part should be called '^Amer- 




AMERICUS VESPUCIUS 



250 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 

ica/' after Americas Vespucius. Accordingly, the name 
was given first to Brazil, later to South America, and 
finally to all of the New AVorld. 

178. A Boundary Line Agreed Upon. — As an outcome 
of the discoveries of Columbus in the West and of Portu- 
guese sea-captains in the East, there was fear that trouble 
might arise between Spain and Portugal over the new- 
found lands. To make clear, therefore, what part of these 
lands each of the two countries might properly claim, in 
1493 a boundary line was set by Pope Alexander VI, 
which in the following year was somewhat changed by a 
treaty. According to the boundary agreed upon, east of 
the Hne the Portuguese were to have the right in the 
future to make voyages along the coast of Africa and 
onward to the east ; while Spain, sailing to the west of the 
line, was to be free to explore and colonize the heathen 
lands in that part of the world. 

179. John Cabot Discovers the Main-Land of North 
America. — No one had any doubt that the navies of Spain 
and Portugal would be able to defend their claims, espe- 
cially since no other country as yet had made discoveries 
in the new lands. 

John Cabot Even at the time when Columbus sailed on his first voy- 
age, however, a sea-captain of England was planning to 
sail westward in search of the Indies. This was John 
Cabot, a Venetian merchant and mariner living in Bristol. 
He had been on many voyages and had spent some time 
in Mecca (Arabia), where he had seen many caravans 
laden with the wealth of the East. He was interested in 
the trade with these countries, and now sought to reach 
them by a water route. 



THE SUCCESSORS OF COLUMBUS 



251 




SEBASTIAN CABOT 



Bristol was one of the chief Enghsh seaports, where 
news of the recent explorations of Portugal and Spain was 
probably talked over among the sea-captains. Doubtless 
some among them had made short 
voyages of exploration to the west; 
and the first voyage of Columbus, 
we are told, gave Cabot "si great 
flame of desire to attempt some 
notable thing." He therefore ob- 
tained a patent from King Henry /^ 
VII, allowing him to go on a "voy- 
age of discovery and trade with un- 
known countries beyond the sea.'' 

It was not until May, 1497, how- 
ever, nearly five years after the first 
voyage of Columbus, that Cabot sailed, with only one 
small ship and eighteen men, principally of Bristol. Hold- 
ing his course westerly, he landed on the coast of Labra- 
dor. Here he raised the flag of England and set up a 
large cross. He then sailed south for about three hundred 
leagues, including probably a voyage through and around 
the Gulf of St. Lawrence. But he saw no human beings. 

He was the first navigator to reach the main-land of 
North America, for Columbus did not touch the continent 
until 1498. On Cabot's return to England he found him- 
self a hero, and was called the Great Admiral. Honors 
were showered upon him, and with much dignity the sim- 
ple sea-captain now went about dressed in fine silks hke 
the gentlemen of his day. He believed he had reached 
the empire of the Great Khan, and that if he sailed far- 
ther south he would reach the land of spices. 



Cabot 
receives a 
patent from 
the King 



He lands on 
the coast of 
Labrador 



The Great 
Admiral 



252 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



The second 
voyage 



Why 

England 

claimed 

the continent 

later 



The work of 

Portuguese 

sea-captains 



This belief; together with his tales of wonderful fishing 
grounds where the fish were so numerous that his vessels 

found it difficult to get 
through, excited much in- 
terest; and the King granted 
him a new patent. The fol- 
lowing year, with five or six 
shipS; he made another voy- 
age; his son Sebastian per- 
haps being with him. We 
know nothing of this expedi- 
tion, but from what was put 
into the maps just afterward 
it seems likely that the fleet 
sailed along the coast of 
New England and possibly 
as far south as Florida. 

For a long time the Eng- 
lish thought very little about 
the discovery. They honored Cabot as a sea-captain, yet 
his voyages meant Httle to them, for he had not brought 
back any rich products from the Far East. Yer}^ soon 
America came to be regarded merely as a barrier block- 
ing the way to Asia. Upon these discoveries of John 
Cabot, however, England later based her claims to the 
continent when it was recognized as such. 

i8o. Vasco da Gama Reaches India by an All- Water 
Route. — ^The year after Cabot discovered the main-land 
of North America and thus gave the English a footing in 
the New World, Vasco da Gama reached India by an all- 
water route around Africa, and thus opened the way for 




ST. John's gate, Bristol, England, 
a landmark contemporary "with 
Cabot's residence in Bristol 



254 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



Da Gama 

reaches 

Hindustan 



Da Gama's 
return to 
Lisbon 



Portuguese trade in the East. For seventy years Portu- 
guese sea-captains — a part of the time under the guidance 
of Prince Henry, as we have seen — had been slowly but 
surely making their way down the west coast of Africa. 
In the summer of 1497; Vasco da Gama was sent by the 
King of Portugal over the same route to make explora- 
tions and get spices. 

His journal gives some interesting details of the voyage. 
They landed in southern Africa, where they gave the na- 
tives little round bells and red caps in exchange for ivory 
bracelets, and, having erected a cross and pillar, they 
sailed away. After failing several times on account of 
storms, they finally rounded the Cape of Good Hope and 
continued the voyage eastward. At Mozambique they 
stopped again and found Mohammedan merchants, who 
had captives from India. This cheered Da Gama and 
his companions, for it seemed that they must be nearing 
India itself — the country they sought. Finally, in May, 
1498, they reached Calicut, on the eastern coast of Hindu- 
stan. Here they were received in state by the King, but 
had some trouble with Moorish merchants. At last the 
King gave them a letter to the King of Portugal, and they 
sailed for home richly laden with Eastern goods. 

Many died on the way, but those who reached Lisbon 
(August, 1499) received a great welcome, and Da Gama 
was given a triumphal entry. He brought back with 
him a rich cargo of silks, damask robes with satin lin- 
ings, and jewels, together with cinnamon, cloves, ginger, 
nutmeg, pepper, and other spices. The all-water route 
to the Far East from Europe was at last found. This 
voyage of Da Gama, opening up a profitable trade with 



THE SUCCESSORS OF COLUMBUS 255 

the East, was in marked contrast with the meagre re- 
turns, as people thought then, of the voyages of Colum- 
bus undertaken for the same purpose. 

Its results were far-reaching. As soon as the Fortu- Results ot 
guese established their trade over this new route, goods ^^ ^oy^ge 
could be brought to Europe more cheaply than by the 
overland routes, and of course prices fell. Italian cities 
lost their prosperity and Venice gave place to Lisbon 
as the collecting and distributing centre of Europe 
Trade passed from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic 
coast, and, as w^e shall see later, graduall}' shifted north- 
ward. 

i8i. Balboa Discovers the Pacific. — Portuguese ex- Balboa 
plorers continued sailing eastward by way of Africa, 
and Spanish explorers westward b}' way 
of the Atlantic. And while the Spaniards 
failed to find the wealth of the Indies, 
their search led to the discovery of riches 
of another kind — the discoveiy of gold. 
On the Isthmus of Panama, joining North 
and South America, were several Spanish 
posts where a number of adventurers 
were exploring the region for gold. Among 
them was Vasco Nunez de Balboa. He 
had heard from an Indian chief that be- 
3^ond the mountains was a great sea, and 
that far to the south was a country rich 
in gold. The Indians knew that the 
Spaniards were greedy for this precious 
metal, and, as was the case with all the tribes, they told 
what the}^ believed would please the strangers. 




256 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



The 

discovery of 
the Pacific 



Magellan's 
plan 



^^^ 




luSez de Balboa 1513) \ 



BALBOA S ROUTE AND THE DISCOVERY OF 
THE PACIFIC OCEAN 



On September 1, 1513; Balboa set out with about two 
hundred men, several hundred Indian porters, and dogs 
on an exploring expedition. Early on a September morn- 
ing, ha\dng climbed the mountains on his way across the 

isthmuS; he beheld for 
the first time the Pacific 
Ocean. In wonder he 
gazed upon the vast ex- 
panse stretching far away 
to the horizon. Four 
days later his company 
reached the coast. Bal- 
boa waited for the rising 
tide, and then, rushing 
into the advancing l^il- 
lows with a flourish of 
his sword, he took possession in the name of the King 
and Queen of Spain. He named it the South Sea. 

182. The Wonderful Voyage of Magellan. — Balboa 
not only discovered the ocean, but in doing so led the way 
in finding out that the land discovered by Columbus was 
not Asia after all, but a separate continent. It still re- 
mained to be proved whether, as Columbus believed, the 
land of silks and spices could be reached by sailing west. 
The honor of doing this belongs to Ferdinand Magellan. 
He was a Portuguese captain who had made a voyage to 
the Far East around the Cape of Good Hope; but he 
believed by sailing west the route would be shorter. His 
plan was to find a passage or strait in America through 
which he might sail; for it was now the common belief 
that America extended to the south i)ole but was cut 



THE SUCCESSORS OF COLUMBUS 257 

in two by one or more channels of the ocean. When he 
asked aid of his King and was refused, he entered the 
service of the Spanish King, and started on his famous 
voyage of discovery. 

With a fleet of five old vessels, manned by two hundred a trying 
and eighty men, on September 20, 1519, he put to sea. ^^p^"^^^® 
Many troubles awaited him. Four days after the fleet 
left port a small vessel overtook the flag-ship with this 
message from the father of Magellan's wife: '^Be watch- 
ful. Some of your captains have said that if you give 
them trouble they will kill you.'' "Be of good cheer/' 
was Magellan's answer, "for be they true men or false I 
fear them not." It was not long before severe storms 
and scarcity of food and water bred a spirit of mutiny 
among the sullen sailors. 

Four months passed before the fleet reached the a sheltered 
mouth of La Plata River. There Magellan spent three ^^''^'''" 
weeks in finding out that it was not a strait. It took an- 
other two months amid ceaseless and furious storms to 
skirt the coast of Patagonia. Then, on the last day of 
March, six months after leaving the home port, ho found 
a well-sheltered harbor, where he anchored. Here was 
enjoyed a plentiful supply of fish. 

But the sailors were disheartened. There was little The 
bread and wine left, and no hope of getting more. They M^gdiTn 
begged Magellan to return. He stubbornly refused. 
Then open mutiny broke out. He sternly put it down. 
A little later one of the vessels was wrecked; but even in 
the face of this discouragement, amid violent storms, he 
pushed on. To Magellan, dangers and hardships were 
matters of small concern. 



258 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



The Strait of 
IVIagellan 



At length his fleet entered the passage of water which we 
now call the Strait of Magellan. From this place one of 
the ships stole away for Spain. Again the sailors on the 




Photograph hy Uiuhrwoud and Underwood, New York 

THE STRAIT OF MAGELLAN 



The Pacific 
Ocean 



Magellan 
slain 



three remaining vessels begged to return home. "I will 
go on/' was Magellan's stern answer^ "if we have to eat 
the leather off the ship's yards. " 

Still heading westward^ they began the long, weary voy- 
age across the vast expanse of water which Balboa some 
years before had called the South Sea. Magellan, how- 
ever, pleased with its peaceful waters, named it the Pacific 
Ocean. But although the ocean was calm, Magellan's 
troubles were not over. The worst even was yet to come. 
Famine, scurvy, and death followed. Strong men grew 
sick at heart. The survivors kept alive only by eating 
the skins and leather bound about the great ropes of the 
ship. Thus were the words of Magellan made true. 

At last the Philippine Islands were reached. Here they 
landed. Magellan converted a native chief to Christi- 
anity, and, joining in a battle against one of the chief's 



vessel 
reaches the 



THE SUCCESSORS OF COLUMBUS 259 

heathen enemieS; was slain. Those of his men who were 

left lifted anchor and steered their course homeward. 

It was still a long voyage; and not until September 6, 

1522, nearly three years after leaving Spain, did they 

arrive at the home port. The one vessel which returned a single 

was manned by eighteen starving sailors, who were little 

more than staggering skeletons. ^^^® port 

This was the greatest voyage that had ever been made, a great 
It proved beyond doubt that the earth was round. More- "^^^^^^ 
over, the question in men's minds whether the land dis- 
covered by Columbus was really the East Indies, as he 
supposed, was also answered. America, men were now 
sure, was a new continent. 

183. Cartier in the St. Lawrence. — While these explo- Cartier 
rations and discoveries were being made by mariners oliT/of^st 
of Portugal, Spain, and England, France was absorbed Lawrence 
in strengthening herself within her own bor- 
ders. Doubtless her fishermen joined those 
of other nations on the banks of Newfound- 
land, but not until 1534 did France send 
out any explorers to the New World.* In 
that year Francis sent Jacques Cartier, an 
expert Norman navigator, to find a north- 
west passage to China. This able seaman 
coasted along the shores of Newfoundland 
and Labrador, entered the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and 

* In 1524, Francis I planned a voyage under an Italian, Giovanni Ver- 
razano; and an alleged letter from him to Francis, reporting the voyage 
and the discovery of the Hudson River, was published many years later. 
But there is no proof that the voyage was ever taken, or that the letter 
was ever written; and the contents of the letter make the voyage im- 
probable. 




260 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



Cartier lands 
at Stadacona 
and 
Hochelaga 



The French 
and the 
Indians 



The French 
fail to plant 
a colony 



returned to France with a full report of what he had 
seen. 

The following year he made another voyage; this time 
sailing up the St. Lawrence^ which he believed to be the 
passage he was seeking. He landed at the little Indian 
village of Stadacona^ where Quebec now stands^ and was 
warned by the Indians not to go farther on account of 
snowS; tempestS; and floating ice. But he refused to be 
turned from his purpose. On his way upstream he came 
to another Indian village, Hochelaga, on an island. It 
had fifty houses strongly defended by a palisade. To-day 
we call the place Montreal. 

Here a thousand Indians thronged the shore, eager to 
welcome the pale-faced strangers. They danced and sang 
and heaped the boats with gifts of fish and corn. When 
Cartier landed with his crew, the squaws and children 
pressed about them and in wonder felt of the men's 
beards and touched their faces. Then the warriors, 
squatting in a circle about the new-comers, had their sick 
chief brought to Cartier to be healed by his touch. To 
the steep hill behind the village Cartier gave the name 
Montreal; which means royal mountain. 

After a brief stay the French returned to Quebec. 
There they spent a terrible winter. Twenty-five of their 
number died. At one time only three or four were well 
enough to nurse the sick. As the ground was frozen so 
hard that they could not dig graves, they hid the bodies 
of their dead in the great snow-drifts. After a winter of 
great distress and suffering Cartier returned to France. 
Five years later he made a second attempt to plant a 
colony at Quebec, but failed.. 



THE BEGINNINGS OF CONQUEST 261 



THINGS TO REMEMBER 

1. America received its name from Americus Vespucius. 2. 
John Cabot was the first navigator to reach the main-land of North 
America (1497). 3. Vasco da Gama was the first sea-captain to 
reach India by an all-water route (1498). 4. Balboa discovered the 
Pacific (1513). 5. Magellan in a wonderful voyage proved that the 
earth was round and that America was a new continent (1519-22). 
6. Cartier sailed up the St. Lawrence as far as the site of Montreal 
(1534). 

TO THE PUPIL 

1. Do you think America should have been named after Columbus? 
Give reasons for your answer. 

2. What did the following men accomplish : John Cabot, Vasco da Gama, 
Balboa, Magellan, and Cartier? 

3. In imagination go with Vasco da Gama, Magellan, and Cartier, and 
give an account of your experiences. 

4. What do you like about Magellan ? 

5. In what ways does he resemble Columbus ? 

6. Trace on your map all the voyages described in this chapter. 



CHAPTER XXIII 
THE BEGINNINGS OF CONQUEST 

184. Hernando Cortez and His Expedition to Mexico. 
— Twelve years after Columbus made his first voyage, a 
young Spaniard of nineteen sailed on one of the fleets for 
the New World. Like the men who had voyaged with 
ColumbuS; he was filled with a desire to get the gold and 
precious stones which, it was believed, were to be found in 
the new land. This young man was Hernando Cortez. 

After a stormy voyage he landed at Hispaniola. Here Cortez in 
he made himself useful in putting down an Indian revolt, ^"^^ 



262 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 

and after a few years joined a successful expedition to 
Cuba, where he hved on a large plantation granted 
him by the governor. He owned, also, some gold 
mines, from which in a few years he made a large sum 
of money. 

Strong and forceful, of good mind and temper, he won 
admiration, and men looked to him for leadership. When, 
therefore, a suitable commander was needed 
to head an expedition to Mexico, Cortez was 
chosen. Although his orders were to con- 
fine himself to exploration, his heart was 
set on conquest. 

185. The March to the Mexican Cap- 
ital. — He landed on the east coast of Mex- 
ico in Februarys, 1519, and with his men 
marched along the shore, the fleet .keeping 
alongside until they reached a point on 
the coast where Cortez founded the town 
of Vera Cruz, which he made his head- 
quarters. From the natives of that region he learned 
that they had to pay tribute to a confederacy of three 
powerful Aztec tribes, whose chief was Montezuma. 
Each of these tribes lived in a huge ^^ pueblo,'' or village, 
consisting of one long building of many rooms, like those 
of our Pueblo Indians in New Mexico and Arizona, only 
the pueblos were not built in cHffs. The most powerful 
of their towns was Tenochtitlan, the Mexican capital, 
which was situated in the valley of Mexico, on an island 
of a lake. The island was reached from the shore by 
long causeways. On the same site now stands the mod- 
ern City of Mexico. 




THE BEGINNINGS OF CONQUEST 263 

It was August before Cortez set out on his march The Spanish 
toward the Mexican capital with four hundred and fifty ^eir^Iuies 
men and fifteen horses. To the natives the horses were 
as frightful as the guns and the cannon, all of which were 
new and strange to them. At Tlascala, Cortez found 
a strong tribe which was independent of Montezuma. 
These natives opposed him savagely at first; but he con- 
quered them and made friends of them, the more readily 
as they were enemies of the Aztecs. They were very 
valuable to him during his campaigns; for they furnished 
him with a large body oi warriors. Indeed; the whole 
Spanish conquest was based on the fact that each native 
race or tribe hated the others worse than it did the 
foreigners. 

The chief reason why so few Spaniards dared venture 
among so many thousand foes was because they were 
protected by body armor. It was of solid metal and 
the arrows and spears of the savages could not pierce it. 
One white man could thus fight a hundred IndianS; with 
httle risk beyond that of being unhorsed and beaten to 
death on the ground. 

The coming of the pale-faced strangers had caused Montezuma 
widespread alarm. Montezum.a was greatly troubled. 
For, many years before that tim.C; according to a story 
which all Mexicans believed; a fair-skinned being; called 
the Sky God; had been driven out of the country by the 
God of Darkness. This Sky God had been their friend; Cortez and 
and had taught them many things. When driven away ® ^ ° 
he had said, ''Some day I shall return, and when I do I 
shall come with men as fair-skinned as myself and become 
the ruler of the country." 



264 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



The Aztecs 
hate and tear 
the Spaniard 



Montezuma 
a captive 



Montezuma believed Cortez to be the Sky God^ and 
therefore he feared him. He sent messengers with gifts 
of great value — shields^ helmets^ and various ornaments 
of gold. The}^ said the march to Mexico was full of danger. 
But Cortez was deter- 
mined to go forward. 

i86. The Span- 
iards in the Mexican 
Capital. — Seeing this^ 
Montezuma decided 
not to oppose him. 
When, therefore, he 
entered the capital, 
in November, 1519, 
it was with an escort 
provided by Monte- 
zuma himself. Cortez 
and his men were 
given quarters in the 
council-house near the 

great temple. This they at once began to fortify and 
provision; for they knew that the Aztecs hated and 
feared them, and would destroy them if possible. 

In order to weaken the power of his enemies, Cortez 
seized Montezuma and held him and his brother, the next 
heir to the throne, as hostages. For a while he kept them 
in chains, although he pretended to treat them as guests 
The Aztecs were angry and full of terror for the future. 
Although they were eager for revenge and for securit}', 
yet they were intensely superstitious and dared not act 
without a king consecrated by their priests. 




CORTEZ PARADING HIS FOLLOWERS BEFORE THE 
MESSENGERS FROM MONTEZUMA 



THE BEGINNINGS OF CONQUEST 



265 



When at last, however, they were attacked during a a furious 
religious festival and several hundred of their foremost ^^^^^^ 
men were killed, a part of them could restrain themselves 
no longer and fell furi- 
ously upon the Spaniards. 
Cortez was aw^ay and did 
not order or wish the 
massacre, but upon his 

return he had to accept . _^^ 

its results. During the f ' - ' 
siege which followed the 
attack he sent out Mon- 
tezuma^s brother to get 
supplies. But, instead of 
carrying out the orders of 
Cortez, he urged on the 
Aztec warriors and was 
at once made their lead- 
er. Cortez forced Mon- 
tezuma to go out on the battlement and order the fight- Death of 
ing stopped, but now that his brother had become leader ^^^®^^^ 
of the people Montezuma was regarded as only a private 
person and the tool of the foreign foe. Making him the 
target for arrows and stones, they wounded him so se- 
verely that he died soon afterward. 

After an entire week of desperate fighting, it became Cortez 
plain to Cortez that he must leave the Mexican capital, but^w^tii 
He tried to steal away at night without being discovered; ^®^^ ^^^^ 
but the Mexicans were on the watch and attacked the 
Spaniards. The struggle in the darkness was frightful. 
Only after desperate fighting did Cortez at last succeed in 




THE DEATH OP MONTEZUMA 



266 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



Cortez as an 
explorer 



The search 
for the 
passage to 
India 



making his escape, and then with the loss of much of his 
army. That night is still called by Spaniards "Lsi Noche 
Triste''— ''The Sorrowful Night.'' About six months 
later, however, Cortez with reinforcements and fresh 
Indian allies returned and laid siege to the Mexican 
capital. After a stubborn defence of five months, the 
Aztecs surrendered (1521). 

187. Cortez a Conqueror and Explorer. — This victor}^, 
which was a very important part of the conquest of 
Mexico, brought great honor to Cortez. He was made 
governor and captain-general of the country, now called 
New Spain. 

But Cortez was more than a warrior and conqueror. 
For while busy looking after the affairs in Mexico, he still 

found time to es- 
tablish Spanish 
settlements at im- 
portant points in 
different parts of 
the country. He 
also did some val- 
uable exploring. He fitted out a fleet to explore the 
Gulf of Mexico, and another to explore the shores of 
the Pacific. In one of his expeditions on the Pacific coast 
he discovered the Peninsula of California; and he also 
tried to discover the strait which, men believed, connected 
the Atlantic and Pacific. 

You will remember that only two years before the con- 
quest of Mexico, Magellan had discovered what is now 
known as the Strait of Magellan. This was so far to the 
south, however, that the voyage to the East Indies by that 




MAP SHOWING ROUTE OF CORTEZ 



THE BEGINNINGS OF CONQUEST 



267 



route was too long for practical purposes. Therefore 
explorers continued for many years their search for the 
passage through America to the north, as we have already 
seen in the case of Cartier. In these explorations men 
were finding out many things of value about the geogra- 
phy of the New World. 

1 88. Francisco Pizarro and the Conquest of Peru. — Francisco 
Not many years after the conquest of Mexico by Cortez, 
another Spaniard, equally daring, carried on a similar 
campaign against the Incas of Peru. This soldier, who 
made his name famous, was Francisco Pizarro. He was 
a resident of Panama, one of the Spanish settlements which 
had grown up on the isthmus since the discovery of the 

South Sea by Balboa. Here he 
owned a house, a farm, and Ind- 
ian slaves, and was a leading 
) p^ 1 man of the settlement. He had 

J 





A STREET IN CUZCO, PERU, TO- 
DAY, SHOWING HOUSES BUILT 
UPON THE OLD INCA "WALLS 



ernor to explore the coast of the 
South Sea eastward. 

Returning from this expedi- pizarromade 
tion, he brought back reports of g^Pe^'rS'of 
a wonderful city, Tumbez, with a Peru 
palace, a temple, and figures of 
He had with him llamas, 

fine woollen garments, and vases of gold and silver. 

Seeking aid from the King, he went to Spain where for 

what he had done he was made captain-general of 

Peru, for that was the country he visited. 



men and animals made of gold 



2GS 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



Pizarro 
in Peru 



After a year he returned to the New World with his 
four brothers and a small band of followers, and in 1531 
we find him again in Peru. This time he captured its 
ruler, the Inca, penetrated to the sacred capital, Cuzco, 
and made himself the conqueror of Peru very much as 
Cortez had done in Mexico. The story of the capture and 
ransom of the Inca will give some idea of the way in 
which the Spaniards won their conquests and heaped up 
their gold. 
The Inca 1 89. The Spaniards Seize the Inca. — Upon the ap- 

visits izarro pj-Qj^^^j^ of pizarro, the Inca had despatched messengers 

with gifts and words of wel- 
come; and PizarrO; on near- 
ing the capital, sent Her- 
nando de Soto, a gallant 
cavalier and trusted captain, 
with thirty-five horsemen to 
invite the Inca to visit him. 
The next day the Inca re- 
turned this visit, attended 
by a large body of follow- 
ers, who wore quilted cotton 
doublets, and carried weap- 
ons including lances and 
copper-headed clubs, bows, 
slings, and lassos. 
The size of the Inca's army disturbed Pizarro, but he 
gave no sign of fear. He concealed his men in a house 
near by, however, and sent a priest to meet the Inca. 
When the Inca approached, the priest addressed him in 
a long speech, telling him he must pay tribute, must 




THE SPANISH SOLDIERS OF PIZARRO SEIZE 
THE INCA 



The Inca 
seized 



THE BEGINNINGS OF CONQUEST 



269 



believe in Christ, and must give up the worship of idols. 
The Inca, not understanding the strange words and 
manner of the priest, threw the Bible that was handed 
him upon the ground. At once, by signal, the Spanish 
soldiers rushed from their hiding-places, seized the Inca, 
and cut down his followers. 

190. Pizarro, the Inca, and the Conquest of Peru. — The ransom 
The Inca was confined in a room twenty-two feet long and 
seventeen feet wide. Desiring 
his freedom, he reached as high 
as he could on the wall and, 
making a mark, promised to fill 
the room with gold up to that 
height, if Pizarro would let him 
go. The crafty leader agreed. 
It took six months for the na- 
tives to collect this vast quan- 
tity of gold and silver, w^hich 
they gathered in the form of 
vases, tablets, ornaments, and 
bullion from all over Peru. 
Finally it was brought together 
— in value an enormous sum. 

The grasping Spaniards were of course overjoyed, and The inca 
for a time they seem to have treated the Inca with wfth^a^ 
kindness. But a little later, fearing his power, Pizarro ^^^-stnng 
brought him to trial, and condemned him to be burned 
to death unless he declared his belief in Christ. This 
he did; but nevertheless he was strangled with a bow- 
string. Pizarro then marched upon Cuzco, the capital,. Pizarro con- 
and there appointed a new Inca to take the place of the ^^^^^ ^^^ 




THE INCA MAKING THE MARK UPON 
THE WALL, 



270 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 




De Soto 
made 

governor of 
Cuba 



A brilliant 
body of 
foUowersJ 



one he had cruelly murdered. He had succeeded in his 
purpose. He had conquered Peru (1533). 

191. Hernando de Soto and His Followers. — As one 
explorer after another returned with glowing accounts of 
his adventures, the belief quickly spread 
that the newly discovered countries were 
the richest in the world. Men were eager 
to try their fortunes, and each new ex- 
plorer hoped to surpass the last in getting 
wealth and gold.* 

Among this eager number was Hernan- 
do de Soto. As we have just seen, he was 
one of Pizarro's trusted captains. It was 
he that arrested the Inca, but he had no 
pj, go^o part in his murder. He also shared in 

the enormous ransom, and from this ex- 
pedition he had returned to Spain with great wealth and 
honor. 

Hoping to find another land as rich as Peru and Mexico, 
he asked the King of Spain to make him governor of Cuba. 
This the King did, and also granted him permission to 
conquer and settle Florida. De Soto easily found men to 
join his expedition. They sold houses and lands, and in 
fact all that they had, in order to go. A brilliant com- 
pany, therefore, soon gathered about him as their leader. 
There were six hundred in all, including gay nobles and 

* One was Pamfilo de Narvaez. With four hundred men he anchored 
in Tampa Bay, Florida (1528.) Marching inland, he found, instead of gold, 
only a pathless wilderness and unfriendly Indians. 

Ponce de Leon had discovered this land in the full bloom of an Easter 
Sunday (1513). He named it Florida from Pascua Florida, the Spanish 
name for Easter Sunday, the day on which he landed. 



THE BEGINNINGS OF CONQUEST 271 

veterans of war. After arriving in Cuba, De Soto spent 
some time there, and then, leaving his wife to govern the 
island, set out to explore Florida with five hundred and 
seventy men and two hundred horses. After a voyage of 
about two weeks they landed at Tampa Bay, upon the 
western coast of Florida, in May, 1539. 

192. Hostile Indians but No Gold. — But soon after De Soto 
landing their troubles began. The journey was full of Indians ^^ 
danger, and the Indians were hostile. From the start De 
Soto treated them cruelly, for he respected neither their 
rights nor their property. Everywhere he demanded corn 
of the chiefs, and forced both braves and squaws to carry 
baggage and do other forms of menial work. Many 
of the Indians whom he used as porters and guides 
were enslaved or put to death. De Soto had no feel- 
ing for their suffering. He thought only of the gold 
for which he was searching, and was always demand- 
ing that the Indians should tell him where it could be 
found. 

Gold he did not find, but his difficulties increased daily. The suffer- 
There were no roads, and the explorers had to struggle Spaniards ^ 
through lakes and streams and marshes, threading their 
way through dense woods and tangled underbrush, 
or following when they could the trails of Indians or 
wild beasts. They suffered almost beyond bearing from 
swarms of mosquitoes, so fierce that the blood from their 
stings sometimes streamed off the soldiers' bodies. They 
suffered too from hunger, and had constantly to fight 
with the Indians. The woods seemed full of these dusky 
warriors, and often the Spaniards could advance only by 
fighting them step by step. 



272 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



The 

stubborn 
De Soto 



The giant 
chief 



After a while the men implored De Soto to return, but 
he was stubborn. When once he made up his mind, no 
one could move him from his purpose. 

193. A Furious Fight with the Indians. — On one occa- 
sion he reached a town where the ruler, a giant chief, sat 
on cushions upon a raised platform, his slaves holding over 

him a buckskin umbrella 
stained red and white. 
With sullen dignity, which 
the white men should have 
respected, he awaited the 
approach of the Spaniards. 
Even their prancing steeds 
did not disturb his calm- 
ness of manner. But De 
Soto, according to his cus- 
tom, compelled this chief 
to supply him with a quan- 
tity of food and attend 
him on the next stage of 
his journey. 

Together they arrived 
The Indians at a town Called Mavilla, an Indian word from which 
Spaniards we get the name Mobile, for the city and river in Ala- 
bama. Here De Soto's insolence brought on an attack 
from the Indians. The fighting was furious. The 
Spaniards at last set fire to the houses, and by night- 
fall the town was destroyed. Of the Spaniards one 
hundred and seventy were killed or wounded and most 
of their clothing, arms, and supplies were burned. They 
were now so destitute that they were obliged to weave 




DE SOTO S FIGHT WITH THE INDIANS 



THE BEGINNINGS OF CONQUEST 



273 



long grass into mats for clothing. They were in a piti- 
able condition. 

194. The Fruitless Search for Gold. — Marching north- 
ward, about the middle of December they reached a little 
Indian town of two hundred houses, probably on the west- 
ern bank of the Yazoo River. After spending the winter 
here, they again took up their march late in the following 
April. It was the old story over again. They had to 
fight their way through hostile tribes, stopping to make 
boats when the Indians would not give them canoes, and 
always searching for the gold lands, which they could 
never find. 

195. De Soto Discovers the Mississippi. — In the 
spring of 1541, about two years after landing at Tampa 
Bay, they reached the banks of the Mississippi. Here 
they built four boats, crossed the river, and continued 

the search for the prov- 
inces said to contain 
gold. But still there was 
no gold to be found. 

Finally De Soto de- 
cided to go to the coast 
and build ships in which 
to send for aid. Tired, 
discouraged, and weak- 
ened in body, in May, 
1542, he fell sick with a 
severe fever and died. 
His followers, fearing 
that the red men might 
attack them if they 



More dan- 
gers and 
hardships 



De Soto 
reaches the 
Mississippi 




De Soto's 
death 



DE eOTO 8 GRAVE IN THE MIGHTY BIVER HE 
HAD DISCOVERED 



274 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



learned of De Soto's death, wrapped his body in blank- 
etS; weighted it with sand, and, in the darkness of mid- 
night, lowered it into the black waters of the Mississippi. 
De Soto had come to America to seek gold and fame. 
^Yhsit he found was hunger, suffering, disease, and a grave 




Spain made 
wealthy by 
gold and 
silver 



in the gloomy waters of the mighty river he had dis- 
covered. 

196. Gold and Silver Mines in Mexico and Peru. — 
Although De Soto did not find the gold he sought, other 
Spaniards found in Mexico and Peru immense quantities 
of the precious metals. Spain became enormously wealthy 
from her mines. It is believed that the gold and silver 



THE BEGINNINGS OF CONQUEST 275 

that poured into her treasury from this source would now 
be worth five thousand milHon dollars. 

At first native Indians were employed as laborers in the Indians and 
mines. But they were lazy, incapable, stupid, and hard Tn ^iV^nTs 
to govern. Moreover, being accustomed to a wild life, 
they sickened and died under confinement. In Mexico, 
where the number of Indians was large, this mattered 
little to their new masters; but on the islands the supply 
was not sufficient. The Spaniards were forced, therefore, 
to import slaves from Africa. The change in climate and 
the hard work caused a rapid death rate even among the 
negroes. At the same time, they were so much better 
workers than the Indians that there was an increasing 
demand for them, and a thriving slave trade was carried 
on. The great number of inhabitants of negro extraction 
in all the Spanish-American lands to-day makes it clear 
that many Africans were im.ported. 

197. Spain's Missionary V/ork with the Indians. — But Tireless 
a brighter and more attractive picture of the treatment prfeSs, 
of the Indians by Spain is presented in her missionary ^°^ misslon- 

, ^ anes 

work carried on for the conversion of the natives to 
Christianity. It was this religious motive that largely 
inspired Ferdinand and Isabella in giving aid to Colum- 
bus, and Spain continued to send friars and priests 
wherever she conquered new territory and established 
settlements. The missionaries were earnest and tireless. 
They went everywhere, learning the native languages, 
and teaching and converting the natives. 

Besides looking after the Indians in the Spanish towns, Indian 
they built in every Indian village a church, a hospital, ^^^®°^^ 
and a school where they taught the children to read and 



276 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



write Spanish and explained the meaning of the Chris- 
tian religion. In Mexico, where the Indians were more 
civilized, boys were taught in workshops to be tailors, 




AN OLD SPANISH MISSION IN NEW MEXICO, ERECTED IN 1604 



Spanish 
missions 



carpenterS; blacksmiths, shoemakers, and painters. By 
the middle of the sixteenth centur}^, colleges even were 
established. 

Faithful missionaries went out also among the wild 
Indians and by degrees gathered them into villages and 
won them over to Christianity and to habits of work. 
Each mission was really a sort of industrial school, where 
the Indian had to cultivate a plot of ground for himself, 
besides working two hours a day on the village farm for 



THE BEGINNINGS OF CONQUEST 277 

the support of the church. Prayer and the catechism 
came at the beginning and at the end of the working day. 

198. The Growth of Spanish Colonies in the New Spanish 
World. — By 1574 such missions could be found in ever}^ fn^the^New 
country of Spanish America from California to Chile. World 
It has been estimated that in that year the Spanish 
population in the New World was more than 150; 000, 
and the number of Indians in the regions they controlled 
about 5,000,000; most of whom had come under the teach- 
ing of the friars and priests. 

Such was the extent of the Spanish colonies, and such a most 
was the extent of their Christianizing work among the T^^^^ 
natives. The vastness of their enterprise is aU the more 
wonderful when we remember that at this time not a 
single English, French, or Dutch settlement had found a 
foothold an}^here in North or South America. Spain 
had made a most promising beginning in the work of 
colonizing the New World. 

THINGS TO REMEMBER 

1. Cortez conquered Mexico (1519-1521); but he was an ex- 
plorer as well as a conqueror. 2. Pizarro conquered Peru (1531- 
1533). 3. De Soto discovered the Mississippi River (1541). He 
sought gold and fame; he found suffering, disease, and death. 4. 
Spain was made wealthy by the gold and silver from Peru and 
Mexico. 5. By 1574 Spain had planted many colonies in America 
and had done a large missionary work among the Indians. 

TO THE PUPIL 

1. Who was Montezuma? Why did he and the Aztecs fear Cortez and 
the Spaniards ? 

2. What did Cortez accomplish ? 



278 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 

3. How did Pizarro treat the Inca ? 

4. In what way did Spain profit by the conquests of Mexico and Peru ? 

5. How did De Soto treat the Indians, and how did they treat him? 

6. What do you think of De Soto ? What was he trying to do ? What did 
he accomplish ? 

7. Tell what you can about the missionary work the Spaniards did among 
the Indians. 

8. Are you making use of your map in preparing every lesson ? 



RIVAL POWERS IN EUROPE AND AMERICA 

CHAPTER XXIV 
ENGLAND IN THE DAYS OF QUEEN ELIZABETH 

199. Spain Has a Seeming Advantage in America. — Reasons for 
Thus far Spain seemed to enjoy a distinct advantage claims 
over other nations. The Spaniards had explored so 

much in both North and South America that they could 
give good reasonS; from their point of vieW; for claiming 
both continents. An even stronger claim could be made 
by virtue of their colonies; and from these came pouring 
into the Spanish treasury great wealth which gave the 
mother country the means for defending her claims. It 
looked as if Spain, through her colonies, might soon have 
complete control in the New World. 

But this was not to happen. Other nations — the The rivals 
English, the French, and the Dutch — were rising to power ^ ^^^^ 
and would soon claim a share; indeed, they had to do so 
for their own safety and even existence, for if Spain had 
owned all the New World she could easily have conquered 
all the Old World. Why, in the struggle that followed, 
the Spaniards failed and their rivals succeeded in plant- 
ing colonies in various parts of North America, we have 
now to see. 

200. England and the New World. — ^You remember Why Eng- 
that John Cabot was the explorer who first reached the North Ame^r- 
main-land of North America, and that upon this dis- *^^ 

279 



280 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



England not 
a strong 
power 



coveiy England based her claim to the whole continent. 
For nearly one hundred years, however, nothing was done 
toward establishing her claim, either by further explora- 
tion or by planting colonies. This is easy to explain; 
for since Cabot brought back no gold, jewels, nor spices, 
there was little to attract the English to the New World. 
Even if there had been, England was not then a great 
maritime power, and could not compete with Portugal, 
w^hich had discovered and now controlled the route to 

India; nor with Spain, 
which had discovered 
America and controlled 
the ocean route to the 
West. Moreover, even 
in the middle of the six- 
teenth century, England 
was not a great trading 
country by sea; and she 
had no navy for the same 
reason that she had no 
army — she did not need 
it for defence, and the 
people would not pay for 
it for aggression. Her 
island position warded 
off attack from foreign powers, and Englishmen would 
not arm their rulers with weapons that might be used 
against their own liberties. But the lack of a navy 
made it appear to be impossible to plant or defend any 
colonies in America, or prevent Spain from mastering 
the whole New World. 




QUEEN ELIZABETH 



ENGLAND IN THE DAYS OF QUEEN ELIZABETH 281 



201. Elizabeth Made Queen of England. — ^When, England 
about sixty years after Cabot reached North America, county ^ 
Elizabeth was crowned Queen of England, there was httle 
prospect of the colonial growth of her country. There 
was no money in the treasury with which to support army 
or navy, to pay soldiers, or to build war vessels. The 
country was not very poor, but it had not been used to 
paying war taxes, 
nor indeed any 
beyond current 
needs as they 
arose. And not 
only was Eliza- 
beth without 
money,, but her 
people were di- 
vided because of 
differences of re- 
ligion. This, more than anything else, stifled the spirit of 
union. Indeed, no country ever stood in greater need 
of wise leadership than did England when her young 
Queen of twenty-five ascended the throne in 1558. 

It is said that when the news came to her that she was Elizabeth's 
to be Queen, she was so overcome that she fell on her knees, se^rtiie^ 
and after a pause exclaimed, "It is the Lord's doing, and people 
it is marvellous in our eyes.^' From that moment she 
thought of herself as responsible for the welfare of Eng- 
land. Her great life purpose was to serve her people; and 
during all her long reign she made it clear that, whatever 
her own faults and weaknesses might be, she was striving 
with all her might to do the best she could for her country. 




THE ANCIENT PALACE AT GREENWICH CALLED PLACENTIA, 
THE BIRTHPLACE OF QUEEN ELIZABETH 



282 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



"Good 
Queen 
Bess" 



Elizabeth's 
love of finery 
and display 



Elizabeth 
likes to ap- 
pear in 
public 



It is not surprising, then, that the people loved a queen 
so devoted and that they called her ^'Good Queen Bess." 
She was deserving of their love, and tried to keep their 
good-will by kindly and courteous acts. Though she 
could be very haughty to her courtiers, she was always 
gracious and sympathetic to the common people. When 
she entered London for the first time as Queen, an old 
woman handed her a bunch of rosemary, the only tribute 
she had to offer. Elizabeth accepted it graciously, and 
all the way to Westminster held the sprigs in her hand. 
This Queen, so noble in her bearing and so tender in her 
sympathies, had very human faults. She was vain and 
fond of fine clothes and jewels. It 
is said that she had in her wardrobe 
three thousand gowns made of the 
richest material and ornamented with 
lace, embroidery, and jewels. A Ger- 
man traveller tells of seeing her as she 
went to chapel at her palace. Elabo- 
rately attired in costly silk and jewels, 
she was attended by richly dressed 
ladies and nobles of her court, in a 
procession of great pomp and splendor. 
She took great pleasure in ap- 
pearing in public as the central 
figure of her splendid court. Some- 
times she went on horseback, at others on a litter, borne 
on the shoulders of her greatest nobles. But she liked 
best to make her public appearances in the royal barge, 
hung with elegant draperies, taking the lead of a long line 
of boats filled with admiring followers. 




QUEEN ELIZABETH IN ONE OF 
MANY ROYAL COSTUMES 



ENGLAND IN THE DAYS OF QUEEN ELIZABETH 283 



She loved flattery, and looked for gallantry from her The Queen 
nobles. There is a famous stoiy of how one day, walldng waiter^ 
along the street, she came to a muddy spot. While she Raleigh 
was hesitating, not wishing to step into the mud, Walter 
Raleigh, who was stand- 
ing by, quickly took off 
the handsome plush 
cloak he was wearing 
and laid it down for her 
to walk on. The Queen 
was greatly pleased with 
Ealeigh's gallant atten- 
tion. She extended to 
him her favor and soon 
he rose to a high place 
in the court. Elizabeth 
not only made him a 
knight, but presented 
him with costly gifts 

and estates, and showered upon him offices of ranjv and 
dignity. The brave knight, Sk Walter Raleigh, became a 
man of great wealth and influence. 

202. England Constantly Grows in Wealth and Powen 
— But we must remember that all these things came about 
many years after Ehzabeth was made Queen. For under 
her able leadership England was constantly growing 
in power. Her long reign was one of great peace and 
prosperity and the country made enormous gains, in wealth. 

The signs of tliis increasing wealth were many.. It Splendor of 
was especially apparent in the splendor of display and ceremony u 
ceremony in court life. Not only the Queen and her court life 




SIR M'ALTER RALEIGH S CLOAK 



284 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 

ladies but courtiers and gentlemen were given to elabo- 
rate dress. In their brave finery they were very pictu- 
resque. The men wore tight-fitting doublets, often of 
velvet and lace, which were stuffed to make a full shape. 
Their breeches were short, sometimes gathered into puffs 
around the thigh, and sometimes tied below the knees with 
silk and trimmed with lace. Often the sleeves of the 

doublet were 
slashed to show 
a lining of lace. 
Great starched 
ruffs stood out 
around their 
throats, and their 
shirts were deco- 
rated with costly 
embroidery. The 
nobleman's shoes 
were frequently of 

QUEEN ELIZABETH AT KENILWORTH CASTLE i • i 

• fine white leather; 

his cloak was of costly material, trimmed with embroi- 
dery and lace. Hats were as varied as other articles 
of dress, and were of velvet, wool, or beaver, in all colors 
and shapes. 

Sir Walter Raleigh is a good example of the fashions 
of his day. His dress in some of its detail was rich and 
dazzling. We are told, for instance, that he wore a hat 
with a pearl band and a black jewelled feather, that his 
shoes were tied with white ribbons and studded with costly 
gems, and that he had a suit of silver armor that glittered 
with diamonds and other precious stones. Such were the 




ENGLAND IN THE DAYS OF QUEEN ELIZABETH 285 




Dwellings 
more com- 
fortable and 



gay and gorgeous costumes that 
belonged to the higher social life 
of Queen EHzabeth's day. 

As men were more richly 
dressed than formerly, so their 
dwellings were more comfortable convenient 
and convenient. In those days 
of greater peace and security the 
feudal castle gave place to the 
charming Elizabethan palace, 
and new mansions were built all 
over England. Country^ houses 



english ladies op queen 
Elizabeth's time 



began 



to be of brick or stone. 
One of the greatest improve- 
ments was the increased number of windows. Where 
before they had been few and small, they were now larger 
and let in more sunlight. This was not only pleasanter, 
but more healthful. Chimneys 
were built to carry off the smoke, 
and the delightful chimney-cor- 
ners, sometimes with great 
carved chimney-pieces, were a 
feature of the modern dwellings. 
Tapestries hung on the bare 
walls, and chairs and cabinets 
carved in quaint figures had a 
place in parlors or drawing- 
rooms. On the table, pewter 
dishes took the place of wooden, 
and a brave display of silver 

(>j_ ELIZABETHAN COSTUMES FROM 

was often seen. 




286 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



More com- 
fortable ways 
of living 




AN ELIZABETHAN" ROOM AND Kl'KXI.SHING3 



The principal apartments were now on an upper floor, 
and stately stairways were built in. Carpets were used 
in place of the filthy rushes. Immense carved bedsteads 
adorned the sleeping-rooms. Pillows, at one time used 
only for the sick, now became more general. Before this, 

people had slept 
on straw pallets, 
with "s, good 
round log under 
their heads in- 
stead of a bolster 
or pillow." In 
eating, knives had 
taken the place of 
fingers; but forks 
were not used 
until the following century. These are a few of many 
changes that had come by the close of Elizabeth's reign, 
when personal comfort for the first time became possible. 
203. England Awakes to a Larger, Richer Life. — 
England had been backward about taking up these more 
comfortable ways of living, because so long as world trade 
centred in the Mediterranean, she was not in close touch 
with the leading nations. But when trade passed to the 
Atlantic, England found herself in the swift current of 
modern life. New ideas, new interests, and new desires 
seized her. A Spaniard who visited England in Queen 
Mary's days is said to have remarked, '^ These English 
have houses made of sticks and dirt, but they fare com- 
monly as well as the King." This was no longer true. 
England had waked to a larger, richer life, which soon 



ENGLAND IN THE DAYS OF QUEEN ELIZABETH 287 



placed her abreast of the foremost nationS; and before 
long she became a rival for world power. 

204. Bitter Hatred Between England and Spain. — 
But while England was thus only emerging from darkness, 
Spain was advancing in the full 
course of her glory. Her brilliant 
success had given her power and 
made her overbearing toward 
other nations. Nowhere was this 
resented more keenly than in 
England. There the hatred be- 
tween the two countries was 
bitter; and it was nourished and 
kept active by English privateers. 

During Elizabeth's time the 
English Channel swarmed with 
these adventurers; who lay in 
wait to plunder passing vessels of 
countries with whom England 
was at war, and who sometim.es 
did not stop to find out as to the state of war 



Spain over- 
bearing 




A SPANISH* SHIP OF ELIZABETH S TIME 



As Spain English 

had the greatest number and the richest cargoes, and 
there was a war going on between the two countries 
much of the time, she suffered most from these attacks. 
Yet her heaviest losses were not here. English mariners 
and traders began more and more to trespass on her trad- 
ing rights at sea and in the colonies. 

205. Drake, Hawkins, and the Slave Trade. — The Drake's 
Spanish colonists wanted African slaves, and English spain 
traders gladly furnished them for a good return in gold. 
Having learned their way to distant Spanish ports, Eng- 



288 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



Drake and 
Hawkins at 
Vera Cruz 



lish sea-rovers began to prey upon Spanish commerce on 
a much larger scale. The boldest of these captains was 
Francis Drake, the story of whose adventures is more ex- 
citing than any "pirate book" ever written. He hated 
Spain very much as Hannibal hated Rome; and this 
hatred; quite as truly as his zeal for England and his love 
of adventure, was the motive which controlled his re- 
markable career. 

His first expedition to America was with Sir John Haw- 
kins, for whom he was pilot. As this was a slave-trad- 
ing venture, they went first to Africa and collected about 

500 negroes. On the northern 
coast of South America they 
traded them for gold and pearls, 
and sailed for home. But hur- 
ricanes shattered their fleet and 
drove them into the Gulf of 
Mexico. They put into the 
harbor of Vera Cruz, and while 
their ships were undergoing re- 
pairs, the Spaniards, although 
they had signed a truce with 
Hawkins, fell treacherously 
upon them, captured their 
treasure, and destroyed all but 
two of their ships. Indeed, the 



English barely escaped with 




A DASH FOR LIBERTY. AN INCIDENT OF THE 
EARLY SLAVE-TRADE 



their lives. 



Drake's 
purpose 



206. Drake Makes an Ex- 
pedition to Panama. — After this treacheiy, Drake gave 
up slave-dealing and vowed vengeance on Spain. As 



ENGLAND IN THE DAYS OF QUEEN ELIZABETH 289 

soon as possible after returning to England^ he prepared 
to make a series of voyages with the purpose of capturing 
all the Spanish treasure-ships he could find, and attacking 
all the Spanish settlements he could reach. 

In 1572, with only two small vessels manned by a very Drake at 
young crew, he sailed for Panama, intending to capture ^°^°^^ 
the treasure-house of the Spanish colonies, located on the 
northern shore of the isthmus. With great daring and 
bravery he made an attack, but his force was too small 
and he did not succeed. He sent back this message, how- 
ever, by a Spaniard: ^^Tell your governor to hold his eyes 
open. For before I depart, if God lend me life and leave, 
I mean to reap some of your harvest which you get out of 
the earth and send into Spain to trouble all the earth. ^^ 

Before leaving that part of the coast, he m.ade some Drake capt- 
brilliant captures and then suddenly disappeared. Where Spanish ^ 
he had gone was a mystery to the Spaniards. But he t^^^^ure 
had changed his plan. Knowing that King Philip's great 
' opiate Fleet" would arrive from Spain in a few months 
to receive the gold and treasure gathered at Panama, he 
determined to waylay the caravans on their way across 
the isthmus to the ships. During months cf weary wait- 
ing, Drake and his men suffered untold hardships. But 
from their safe retreat, they swept the seas of passing 
cargoes, swooped down on unsuspecting fleets, and robbed 
distant store-houses of the treasure intended for the King. 

When at last the King's ships arrived, Drake's first at- He attacks 
tempt at capture was foiled. But later, after the Spaniards ^ ™" ® ^^ 
thought all danger was over, he made a sudden assault 
on one of the mule trains and got off with a great store of 
treasure. With the greatest difficulty it was conveyed 



290 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



to the shipS; and then, laden with their precious booty 

and rejoicing at their good fortune, they set off for home. 

207. Drake Sees the Pacific. — In his passage across the 

isthmus, while on his way to attack the caravans, Drake 

was taken by the natives to 
the top of a hill where, from 
under the spreading branches 
of a gigantic tree, he gazed 
over the vast waters of the 
Pacific. He was the first 
Englishman to behold this 
ocean. In awe he sank upon 
his knees, praying God to 
give him life and leave to sail 
upon those seas. 

208. Drake's Voyage 

Around the World. — It was 

several years before Drake 

could again make a voyage to 

the New World. Spain and 

Drake starts England Were at peace, and the Queen would not allow him 

to sail. In 1577, however, conditions had changed; and 

by the help of wealthy friends he obtamed command of 

five ships and set out with the Queen's consent. It was 

understood that he was starting for Egypt, and it was 

long before his men loiew whither they were bound. 

AVhen they found out, a serious mutiny threatened him, 

but his great ability as a master of men saved the day. 

The fleet sailed down the coast of Africa, struck across 
to South America, and made for the Strait of Magellan. 
Storms rendered the strait almost impassable. For two 




DRAKE SEES THE PACIFIC 



on his voyage 



He enters 
the Pacific 



ENGLAND IN THE DAYS OF QUEEN ELIZABETH 291 



weeks the vessels were tossed about by squalls and whirl- 
winds amid threatening rocks, and a worse storm struck 
them as they entered the Pacific. 
For two months the}^ w^ere driven helplessly hither and The "Golden 



One 



Hind" alone 



thither. One ship went down with all her crew. 

sailed back through the strait. 

Two had already been lost 

before entering the strait, so 

that Drake's ship, the Golden 

Hind, was left alone. He was 

driven southward to Cape 

Horn, but was too rejoiced 

over his discovery of the cape 

to be afraid. He had found 

the spot where the waters of 

the Atlantic and the Pacific 

rolled together. 

Finally the storm died aw^ay, 
and fortune turned in favor 
of the jubilant adventurers. 
They roused the astonished 
people of Chile as they sailed 
north, plundering as they went. At Valparaiso they Drake plun- 
collected provisions, and farther on they refitted the ship spani^^ds 
and set up a pinnace, making ready for further exploits. 
They then went on, plundering shamelessly and joyfully. 
They had many races after treasure-ships ahead. One 
important capture they made off the coast of Nicaragua. 
This was two Chinese pilots with Spain's secret trade- 
charts of the Pacific, a prize worth more than many 
treasure-ships. Continuing his course, Drake next capt- 




DRAKE IN THE PACIFIC OVERTAKING A SPANISH 
SHIP ON HER WAY FROM CHINA 



292 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



He steers 
across the 
Pacific 



Queen 
Elizabeth 
makes Drake 
a knight 



Drake's 
achieve- 
ments 



ured some Spanish vessels on their way from China. On 
one of them he found more charts, along with silks, fine 
white china, and other precious things. The Spaniards 
were in a fever of alarm. 

But with his splendid booty Drake was off again. In 
vain they hunted for him along the coast. He had van- 
ished. Going north about 
as far as San Francisco, 
he steered straight across 
the Pacific, seeing no land 
for sixty-eight days. He 
made the Philippines, 
reached Java after a peril- 
ous voyage, then rounded 
the Cape of Good Hope 
and sailed northward. 
He arrived in England 
early in November, 1580, 
after a voyage of nearly 
three years. 

At first he was not al- 
lowed to land, for his at- 
tacks on Spanish vessels 
had threatened a war be- 
tween England and Spain ; but later he was in\dted to court 
and treated with distinguished honor. The Queen herself 
dined on board his ship, and knighted him. From that time 
he was called Sir Francis Drake. He was the second man 
and the first Englishman to sail entirely aroimd the globe. 
His achievements, with those of other sea-captains of 
his class, did much to establish the British on the seas and 




DRAKE S MEN BOARDING A SPANISH TREASURE- 
SHIP IN THE PACIFIC 



ENGLAND IN THE DAYS OF QUEEN ELIZABETH 293 

to weaken the power of Spain. Drake was the first 
Englishman who set out to reduce the strength of Philip 
II by striking at him in America. For he saw clearly 




QTJEEN ELIZABETH KNIGHTING DRAKE ON BOARD THE GOLDEN HIND, AT DEPTFORD, 
APRIL 4, 1581 



that the Spanish King was using the enormous quantities 
of gold and silver from Mexico and Peru to carry on his 
many European wars. 

209. Differences of Religion. — ^The hatred of Sir TheRef- 
Prancis Drake for Spain was in large measure shared by 
all Englishmen, and the bitterness of their feeling was 
greatly increased by differences of religion. During the 
Middle Ages the people all belonged to one church. The 
Pope, as we have seen, was its supreme head, and there 
was no question about his rule. But after the Crusades 
.and the rebirth of knowledge, the minds of men were 



294 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



stirred with new ideaS; and in course of time there came 
to be much discussion and bitter disputing about some of 
the practices and teachings of the church. The great 
rehgious movement which followed is called the Reforma- 
tion. It ended in establishing Protestantism. Those 
who favored the Reformation are now called Protestants. 




From a painting by Baron Leys 



MARTIN LUTHER 



Religion a 
part of the 
national 
spirit 



During Elizabeth's time there were many Protestants 
in England; France^ Germany^ and Holland; — in Germany 
the followers of Martin Luther, and in France and the 
Netherlands the followers of John Calvin, — and in all these 
countries there was political unrest. As the church had 
been very closely united with the state, the division in the 
church caused division also in the nation. Feeling ran 
high; and religion became a part of the national spirit. 
Many so-called religious wars were fought, during this 



ENGLAND IN THE DAYS OF QUEEN ELIZABETH 295 

period, not directly on questions of religion, but to de- 
termine whether the Protestant or the Catholic party 
should have control in the state. 

The same cause also made trouble and brought on wars Wars of re- 
between some of the leading countries of Europe, making ^^°" 
more keen their strife for power. Spain was Catholic 
and the most threatening to the weaker nations, though 
they soon became her successful rivals and far outdis- 
tanced her in the race for power. 

THINGS TO REMEMBER 

1. The Spaniards, the English, the French, and the Dutch were 
rivals in Europe and in America. 2. When Elizabeth was made 
queen, England was not a strong country. But during her long 
reign the English people constantly grew in wealth and power. 
3. When trade passed from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic, 
England found herself in the swift current of modern life. 4. There 
came to be a bitter hatred between the English and the Spaniards. 

5. Drake's great purpose was to capture all the Spanish treasure- 
ships he could find and attack all the Spanish settlements he could 
reach. In this way he sought to weaken Spain's power in Europe. 

6. The bitterness of feeling between England and Spain was greatly 
increased by differences of religion. 

TO THE PUPIL 

1. In the latter part of the i6th century what advantages did Spain seem 
to have over her rivals in America ? 

2. In what ways was England weak when Elizabeth was made queen? 

3. Tell what you can about Queen Elizabeth. What do you think of 
her? Why was she called "Good Queen Bess"? 

4. What were the signs of England's increasing wealth ? 

5. Can you explain why there was bitter hatred between England and 
Spain? 

6. What was Drake's great purpose? What did he accompHsh ? What 
do you think of him? 

7. What is meant by the Reformation? i. 



PM 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



World 



CHAPTER XXV 
FRANCE ANOTHER RIVAL OF SPAIN 

France and 210. France in the New World. — While following the 
the New conquests of Spain in the New World and the achieve- 
ments of England at sea, we have lost sight for a time 
of France. That is because France was so much occu- 
pied in strengthening her kingdom at home that she had 
little interest in the new-found distant lands. Moreover, 
she had neither the religious zeal of the Spaniards nor 
the adventurous love of the sea so strong in the English. 
And yet she knew the advantage of discovering a short 
route to Asia, and she wished to share in the wealth 
which Spain, her rival, was gathering across the seas and 
pouring into the royal treasury. 

French privateers were constantly on the lookout for 
Spanish treasure-ships on their way from America, and 
made frequent captures. French fishermen from Brit- 
tany and Normandy also continued to ply their trade on 
the coast of Newfoundland. They had known this region 
since the time of the Cabots, and had gone there in boats 
of their own as early as 1504. An enduring trace of their 
early occupation is found in the name Cape Breton, the 
inhabitants of Brittany (in French, Bretagne) being called 
Bretons. The hardy mariners of northern France also 
made many expeditions to the Canaries and the African 
coast, and in these southern waters continued to prey 
upon Spanish treasure-ships. 

In 1534, Francis I sent out an expedition, as you 
remember, to explore the northwestern coast of North 



French 
privateers 
and fisher- 
men 



FRANCE A RIVAL OF SPAIN 297 

America, the leader being Jacques Cartier, a Breton France 

^ _ ^ - Tx- X claims a part 

adventurer from St. Malo. His reports were encourag- of North 
ing, but a new war with Spain put an end to further pur- America 
suit in this direction. Very Httle more was done by 
France during this centuiy, but enough had been explored 
to give her a claim to a part of North America when 
the rivalries of European nations were transferred to the 
New World. 

211. France a Strong and Wealthy Kingdom. — Let The growing 

7 . „ -r^ . -i^ 1 • power of the 

US look briefly at the position of France m Europe durmg French 
the sixteenth century, the period at which we have ar- ^'°s^ 
rived. At that time she was held to be the foremost king- 
dom of Christendom, the wealthiest and strongest. The 
great reason for this was that the country was united 
under one head, the King. For a long time the French 
kings had been strengthening their own power by lessen- 
ing the power of the nobles. This they had done partly 
by marrying the royal princes and princesses to the heirs 
of the nobles; partly by taking lands from them on 
pretext of treason; and in other ways. 

They had also humbled the cities. As long as the cities ^^^^^^^^^^^^ 
were small, the kings had helped them in every way, 
so that they might weaken the landed nobihty. But 
now that the strength of the nobles was gone, the aid cf 
the cities was no longer needed. The people as a whole 
were filled with a spirit of obedience to the King, and this 
made the nation united and strong. Moreover, the army 
and navy were excellent, and France was well able to de- 
fend herself. 

212. Francis I and His Dangerous Rival.— The reign Francis 

attacks his 

of Francis I began in 1515, when the King was only twenty rival in Italy 



298 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 




years old. It was largely occupied with wars against 
Charles V, who was not only King of Spain, but was 
also ruler of the Netherlands, Naples, Sicily, Austria, 

the New World, and was 
made Emperor of the Holy 
Roman Empire. Francis first 
attacked his dangerous rival 
in Italy, where they both 
claimed the right to the same 
territory, and by a brilliant 
victory made good his claim 
to Milan. After this battle 
he received knighthood from 
the renowned Chevalier 
Bayard, who is known to his- 
tory as ^Hhe knight without 
fear and without reproach." 
Bayard was a wonderful man. Allien barely twenty 
he had been made a knight for his bravery in battle. 
Of the many stories told of his chivalry, one is about a 
contest between thirteen French and thirteen German 
knights, in which he won the day. On another occasion 
it is said that he held a bridge single-handed against two 
hundred Spaniards. Twice, when captured, he was set 
free without ransom. In fact all men, whether friends 
or foes, admired him for his splendid courage and gal- 
lantry. It is not strange, therefore, that Francis would 
allow no one else to knight him. 

But the deed which more than any other gives Bayard 
a place as a national hero was his six weeks' defence of 
an old French fortress with one thousand men against 



FRANCIS I 



FRANCE A RIVAL OF SPAIN 



299 



thirty-five thousand. He heartened his men by his own 
splendid bravery, and by a clever trick finally drove the 
Spaniards away. He thus gave Francis time to collect 
an army, and so saved France. Parhament thanked 
him as the savior of his country. The King made him a 
knight of his own order, and gave him command of one 
hundred men in his own name— an honor usually re- 
served for royalty. 

In his next war against Charles in Italy, Francis was Bayard's 
taken prisoner and held for about a year in Madrid. In serious loss 



Hav- 



for France 



one of the battles of this war. Bayard lost his life. 

ing received a mortal wound, he sat 

with his back against a tree facing 

the enemy. The Duke of Bourbon, 

who had deserted his King and 

gone over to Charles, came up to 

the dying Bayard and expressed his 

sympathy. ''Weep not for me,'' 

said the chevalier, ''but for thyself. 

I die in performing my duty; thou 

art betraying thine.'' His death 

was a grievous loss to his King and 

to his country. 

213. Civil Wars of Religion in 
France.— The wars went on for many 
years. When at last in 1544 they 
were brought to an end, out of 

years of bloodshed and hardship for the nation nothing The outcome 
had been gained for France. Later there were serious glooTshed^ 
troubles in France itself between the French Protes- 
tants, or Huguenots, and the Catholics. Finally these 




CHEVALIER BAYAKD 



300 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



Serious 
troubles 

The first 
colony 



The second 
colony 



The Spanish 
soldiers 
massacre 
the French 



troubles developed into civil wars of religion^ and out of 
these grew an attempt to plant a colony in Florida. 

214. The Huguenots in Florida. — ^Admiral Coligny, 
a great French nobleman, was the Huguenot leader. 
Desiring to find a refuge for his people in America, he 
sent out a small colony in 1562, which settled at Port 
Royal, South Carolina. But the settlers, not being the 
kind of men to meet the demands of a rough backwoods 
life, soon tired and sailed back to France. Two years 
later Coligny sent out another colony, which settled on 
the St. John's River, many 
miles south of the first col- 
ony. These men also were 
unfit for their task, and were 
soon in need of food. They 
were saved from starving 
only by the coming of new 
colonists with fresh supplies. 

But scarcity of food proved 
not to be their greatest 
danger. The Spanish King, 
Philip II, was so angry with 




s^%fi^^ 



OLD SPANISH GATE, ST. AUGUSTINE 



the French for planting col- 
onies on what he was pleased to call Spanish soil that he 
sent a body of soldiers to destroy them. Having built a 
fort, they attacked the French settlement and brutally put 
to death at least 700 men, women, and children. Only 
a few, perhaps a half-dozen, escaped, and after many 
dangers got back to France. The Spanish fort was the 
beginning of St. Augustine, which is now the oldest town 
in the eastern part of the United States. 



FRANCE A RIVAL OF SPAIN 301 

On account of religious strife at home, France did not a French 
openly resent this outrage by Spain. But a French aTeng^esthe 
leader, De Gourges, fitted out at his own expense an expe- massacre 
dition for the purpose of avenging this massacre. Sail- 
ing to Florida, he captured two Spanish forts and put to 
death nearly all the Spanish soldiers. As his force was st. 
not strong enough to attack St. Augustine, he returned "^ustme 
to France the following year, leaving the Spaniards in 
control in Florida. It was nearly three-quarters of a 
century before the French tried again to plant a colony 
in North America, and then at a point far to the north 
of Florida. 

THINGS TO REMEMBER 

1. France claimed that part of North America which Cartier had 
explored. 2. At that time France was held to be the wealthiest and 
strongest country in Europe. 3. By reason o the many wars be- 
tween Francis I and his dangerous rival, Charles V, for a long 
time the French made no attempt to plant colonies in America. 
4. When, at last, a body of Huguenot settlers made their homes in 
Florida, they were nearly all massacred by Spanish soldiers. 

TO THE PUPIL 

1. What part of North America did France claim, and why? 

2. Do you see how it was that France had become the foremost king- 
dom in Europe? 

3. Why did the French King, Francis I, pay so little attention to America? 

4. What can you tell about Chevalier Bayard, and what do you admire 
in him? 

5. Explain why the Huguenots tried to plant a settlement in Florida. 
What became of these settlers? 

6. What was St. Augustine? 



302 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



The work of 
the wind- 
mills 



• CHAPTER XXVI 

THE KING OF SPAIN DEFIED BY HIS 
DUTCH SUBJECTS 

215. The Dutch People. — Another people whom Spain 
was striving to conquer at this time was the Dutch. 
Before following this stubborn little nation in their 
struggle for liberty^ let us get a glimpse of their interest- 
ing countr}^ 

It lies about the mouths of the Rhine^ the Meuse^ and 
the Scheldt Rivers, and is composed mainly of the silt 
which .these rivers deposit as they near the sea. It is 
low and marshy, much of it below sea-level, and its fiat 
surface is broken by lakes and swamps and inlets of the 
sea. Great tempests sweep over it, and mists and fogs 
envelop it much of the time. Such is little Holland and 
northern Belgium, the land of the Dutch people. A seem- 
ingly useless spot, the Dutch have bravely and patiently 
rescued it from the sea by a long fight, and have made of 
it thriving towns, green pastures, waving wheat-fields, 
fruitful orchards, and blossoming gardens. 

To do all this called for a great deal of time and money 
and patience, for the ocean with its ceaseless flow had 
always to be kept out. They had to build strong dikes; 
that is, solid walls with gates that could be opened* when 
necessary. Even then they had to be ever on the watch, 
as they must be to-day; for a tiny leak, if not repaired, 
might bring disaster. 

But keeping out the rush of .the sea is only a part of the 
battle, for the swamps and lakes have to be drained of 



THE KING OF SPAIN DEFIED BY THE DUTCH 303 




useless water. 
Countless wind- 
mills; since the 
time of the Cru- 
sades, have per- 
formed this task. 
They stretch in 
picturesque rows 
along the dikes, 
and pump the 
water from the 

fields into canals which form a net-work all over the land. 
Even scattered farms in the country are connected with 
each other and with cities by these water-ways, which also 

connect them 
with the sea. 



Hfeii 



mmm 



IN THE WINDMILL COUNTEY, HOLLAND 




Copyright by Underwood and Underwood, Nt 
THE REPRODUCTION OF HUDSON'S "HALF MOON,'' AT THE 
TIME OF THE HUDSON FULTON CELEBRATION IN NEW 
YORK WATERS, 1909 



Bemg so close Dutch mari- 
, .1 ners and 

to the sea, many explorers 
of the Dutch 
earned their liv- 
ing in their boats. 
Some were fisher- 
men, some trad- 
ers, and some 
sturdy mariners 
and explorers. 
Perhaps they 
were more pru- 
dent than ad- 
venturous. At all 
events they had 



304 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



Dutch 
fishermen 
and trade 



Dutch 

courage and 
love of 
freedom 



Charles V 
and the 
Netherlands 



no Columbus nor Drake. But Hudson River and Bay, 
Bering Strait, Block Island, and perhaps Rhode Island, 
and other places, named after or by Dutch explorers, 
bear evidence that they had a part, though a small one, 
in the discoveries of the New World. 

Their mariners were much more active in fisheries and 
trade. The fisheries became extensive, and after Portu- 
gal had discovered the water route to the Indies, Dutch 
towns for a time carried on a thriving trade by sea with 
Lisbon. Dutch merchant-men steadily and rapidly in- 
creased in number and became the chief carriers of the 
northern seas. The coasts of their provinces thronged 
with traffic, and thus was begun their great future as a 
trading nation. 

\\Tiether struggling against the sea or building up a 
world commerce, this sturdy race showed a stubborn 
courage, a patient industry'-, and a never-failing perse- 
verance. These same qualities con- 
trolled their pubHc life. They had 
a love of freedom which expressed 
itself in a free and independent gov- 
ernment. • They made their own 
laws and voted their own taxes, 
and these liberties were very dear 
to them. 

216. Philip II and the Nether- 
lands. — AMien Philip II ascended the 
throne of Spain, in 1556, he received 
the Netherlands, including the present Holland to the north 
and Belgium to the south, as a part of his kingdom from 
his father, Charles V. Charles had not been mindful of 




j 



THE EMPEROR, CHARLES V 



THE KING OF SPAIN DEFIED BY THE DUTCH ;j05 



the rights of the people, and was very cruel to the Protes- 
tants, who lived mostly in the north. But in spite of 
his faults he won men to himself, for he was really a 
great man and ruler. Philip, however, was a narrow and 
haughty man with his human feeling Vv^ithered by religious 
bigotry, and was much disliked and feared by the Dutch. 

Their fears were not groundless. For when he became Phmp op- 
their King he at once began to take away their liberties. Nefher- 
He appointed Spanish officials to represent him, kept a ^^^^^^^ 
body of Spanish troops in the country, 
and increased the taxes. Worse than all 
else, in his determination to stamp out 
heresy he added religious persecution. 
This he did through the Inquisition, which 
was a court to examine and punish here- 
tics, as those were called who were not 
Catholics. 

217. Bitter Opposition to Philip. — ^Thus 
he aroused bitter opposition. Certain 
noblemen formed a league to protect 
themselves against these measures. Two 
hundred or more of their number pre- 
sented a "request" to Margaret, Philip's 
sister, who was acting as regent for him. They marched The 
four abreast to the palace and asked that she suspend the "request** 
punishment of men on account of their religion until she 
could send an envoy to the King and learn his pleasure. 
As these men with serious faces filed by, Margaret's eyes 
filled with tears, for she felt sure that the outcome would 
be a deadly struggle between these stubborn men and the 
equally stubborn King. 




KING PHILIP II 



306 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



The 



A wave of 
patriotism 



Thousands 
put to death 



One of the royal councillors; on seeing Margaret^s dis- 
tresS; said to her, '^Is it possible that your Highness can 
be afraid of these beggars!'^ When this remark came 
to the ears of the Dutch patriots, they adopted the name 
"Beggars" for themselves and made it a watchword of 
liberty. Not only the noblemen but their wives and 
children now clothed themselves in the beggar^s dress of 
coarse gray. The nobles hung upon their caps small 
wooden cups like those which beggars used, and fastened 
a special medal of gold or silver to chains on their breasts. 
On one side it was engraved with Philip's image, on the 
other mth a beggar's wallet and the motto, "Faithful to 
the King, even to bearing the beg- 
gar's bag. " Cheaper medals of cop- 
per and lead were in great demand. 
Sailors on the sea and working-men 
on the land gloried in wearing them 
and in calling themselves "Beggars. " 
A wave of patriotism swept over the 
whole countr}^ The stubborn spirit 
of a freedom-loving people was on 
fire with indignation. 

218. Pitiless Cruelty of the Duke 
of Alva. — As a result of the con- 
tinued excitement, a Protestant riot broke out in the 
cities. The mobs sacked churches and cathedrals, de- 
stroyed images, and carried off church treasures. To 
restore order and compel submission, Philip sent to the 
Netherlands (1567) the Duke of Alva, a Spanish general. 
Alva was a pitiless soldier and his men equalled him in 
cruelty. Through the Inquisition he executed men in 




DUKE OF ALVA 



THE KING OF SPAIN DEFIED BY THE DUTCH 307 

droves. With little or no pretext, he put thousands 
to death. Some were beheaded, some were hanged, and 
others burned at. the stake. During Alva's stay in the 
country, it is said that more than 18,000 people were 
executed by his orders. Nor did he stop with the 
punishment of the Dutch Protestants in the north. He 
was cruel as well to the southern Netherlanders who 
remained Catholic. 

219. William, Prince of Orange, and the Dutch Re- William the 
volt. — A great revolt followed these outrages, a bitter great leader 
struggle which lasted over forty years. The Dutch 
patriots, fighting for their political rights and for relig- 
ious freedom, were led by William, Prince of Orange, 
sometimes called ^^ William the Silent. '' He was a rich 

and powerful nobleman and a very brave and patriotic 
man. His followers looked up to him with the greatest 
respect and confidence. Under his strong leadership 
they resisted with stubborn heroism the terrible might • 
of the Spaniards. It was also through his leadership 
that the northern Netherlands finally became a free 
and imited nation; though the southern provinces fell 
away and went back under Spanish rule rather than dis- 
obey the Roman Catholic Church. He has been called 
the Dutch Washington. 

220. The Siege of Leyden. — ^The crisis of the struggle The 
came in 1574 with the siege of Leyden. This city was f^iSd^ 
one of the most beautiful in the land, showing every sign *^® ^^^ 
of thrift and prosperity. The first siege of the Spaniards 

was short, but when the city was reheved it foohshly 
neglected to lay in supplies. As a result, when the Span- 
iards again surrounded it. about two months later (June), 



308 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



"Better a 
drowned 
land than a 
lost land" 



The citizens 
dying of 
hunger and 
pestilence 



The fleet 
advances to 
the rescue 




the city was without surplus provisions and almost with- 
out troops for its defence. 

The only way in which the Dutch could hope to over- 
power the Spaniards was by their fleet. But Ley den 
was not on the sea. Therefore the sea must be brought 
to Ley den at any cost. William 
had long been convinced that the 
only way to save the city was to 
break the dikes. This would greatly 
damage villages, fields, and growing 
crops. Yet; notwithstanding the 
outlook; the patriots fearlessly cried 
out; ''Better a drowned land than 
a lost land. " 

In August; therefore; the dikes 
which kept out the ocean were cut, 
and the water rose over the land. 
The fleet advanced with the tidC; captured the dikes 
near the city; and broke through them. Then unfavor- 
able winds camC; held back the water; and the fleet lay 
stranded in the shallows. The citizens of LeydeU; mean- 
while; were dying of hunger and pestilence. Still they 
held out against the besieging Spaniards in desperate 
hope of relief. 

From his head-quarters not far from Leyden, Will- 
iam encouraged them. ''As long as there is a living 
man left in the country;^' he said; "we will contend for 
our liberty and our religion.'' At last; to the great joy 
of the starving citizenS; a severe storm arose. The waters 
rushed iu; floating the shipS; and they came sailing on- 
ward to the rescue of the brave men and women in the 



WILLIAM, PRINCE OF ORANGE 



THE KING OF SPAIN DEFIED BY THE DUTCH 309 

city. One Spanish garrison fled in terror, .many drowning 
as the waves swept on. But there was still a formidable 
Spanish redoubt facing the Dutch fleet. 

That night, in the storm and darkness, a great crash The 
was heard. The city wall had caved in, and the whole reSeS' ^ 
place was at the mercy of the Spanish soldiers. They, 
however, already terror-stricken by the advance of the 
ocean, were all the more alarmed by the crash and silently 
fled in the darkness. In the morning, when the fleet 
was preparing for a last desperate assault, they dis- 
covered that the fort was deserted. Without opposition, 
the welcome vessels sailed into the city amid the wild 
joy of the survivors. 

221. Death of William, Prince of Orange. — ^This did A heroic 
not end the struggle. William continued to champion °^^° 
the cause of the patriots. In 1580, Philip II declared 
him a traitor and an outlaw and put a heavy price on his 
head. Five attempts were made after this to murder 
him. The sixth was successful. He was shot in 1584 
by a fanatic, who thought he w^as doing a Christian duty* 
The death of this heroic man, whose whole life was one 
of devotion to his people, was a serious loss to them; but 
the struggle for their rights as freemen did not stop, as 
we shall see in the following chapter. 

THINGS TO REMEMBER 

1. The Dutch were a sturdy race with stubborn courage, never- 
failing perseverance, and a deep love of freedom. 2. When Philip 
II became the King of the Netherlanders he at once began to take 
away their liberties. 3. The Dutch patriots, fighting for their politi- 
cal rights and for religious freedom, were led by William, Prince of 



310 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 

Orange. 4. The crisis of the struggle came in 1574 with the siege 
of Leyden, the result of which was the defeat of the Spaniards. 5. 
The heroic Prince of Orange was at last shot by a fanatic (1584). 

TO THE PUPIL 

1. Can you explain how the Dutch people rescued from the sea the land 
on which they Uved ? 

2. What kind of people were the Dutch, and how did most of them earn 
their livmg ? 

3. What kind of king was Philip II, and how did he oppress the people 
of the Netherlands? 

4. Who were the "Beggars"? 

5. What do you think of the Duke of Alva? 

6. What kind of leader was William the Silent? How do you like him? 

7. Imagine yourself in Leyden during the siege and tell what happened. 

8. Are you using your map in the preparation of every lesson? 



CHAPTER XXVII 

ENGLISHMEN JOIN IN THE FIGHT AGAINST 

SPAIN 

222. Elizabeth Sends Aid to the Netherlands. — Eliza* 
beth had long refused to send aid to the struggling Neth- 
erlands. But at last she saw clearly that Philip II, 
with his powerful army and nsLVj, might overwhelm 
them if they were left to fight their battles single-handed. 
She knew also that with the Netherlands at his feet Philip 
would next try to crush England. In 1585; therefore, she 
sent to their aid a small army under the command of the 
Earl of Leicester. 
A true 223. Sir Philip Sidney. — The Dutch gained little from 

the\ge t^is venture of Elizabeth's, but England lost one of her 

noblest men. This was Sir Philip Sidney, a true knight 




SIR PHILIP SIDNET 



ENGLISHMEN FIGHT AGAINST SPAIN 311 

of the age. He was a nephew of Leicester and a great 
favorite of the Queen. To him had been given the posi- 
tion of governor in Flushing, a Dutch town held as a 
pledge by Elizabeth. He fell in a hopeless engagement 
in which he had taken part as a volunteer. A touching 
incident of this encounter has come 
down to us. As Sidney was returning 
from his last charge he received a 
fatal wound. Some one brought 
him a cup of water, but, observing a 
dying soldier near by, he insisted 
upon its being given to him, saying, 
'^Thy need is greater than mine. " 

Sidney himself died soon after. 
Though only thirty-two, he had made 
a place among the leading men of his day. He w^as a noted The idol of 
scholar, a brave soldier, and an accomplished gentleman. ^ "^® 
Noble and generous, with a rare charm of manner, he was 
a favorite not only in the court but in the camp. He has 
been called the idol of his time. His gracious act on the field 
of battle gives but a glimpse of his unselfish and chivalrous 
spirit, which found its greatest pleasure in serving others. 

224. The Invincible Armada and Sir Francis Drake. PhiKp's 
— ^Elizabeth continued to give a wavering support to p^^°^®^ 
Holland, while Philip of Spain meantime secretly has- 
tened preparations for a long-planned invasion of England. 
He beHeved the time had come for seizing the English 
throne,* and that with England added to his empire he 

* Philip II, as husband of Mary, who was Queen of England (1553-8), 
had color of legal claim which he thought the English Catholics might 
Recognize 



312 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 

would soon put an end to the stubborn resistance of Hol- 
land. His ambition knew no bounds. The great fleet 
which he was building he called the "Invincible Ar- 
mada/' for he believed nothing afloat would be able to 
conquer it. 
Drake Notwithstanding his secrecy, however, Elizabeth and 

Ki^ng^s^^ ® her advisers knew quite well what was going on. She 
beard" therefore sent Sir Francis Drake — ^who, you remember, 

had been made her Majesty's 
admiral at sea — ^with a fleet 
of twenty-three vessels and 
orders to sail against Spain. 
In the summer of 1587 he 
entered the port of Cadiz at 
a time when the harbor was 
full of transports and store- 
ships in preparation for the 
coming attack upon Eng- 
land. At sight of Drake 
the Spaniards were paralyzed 
with fear, and made little 
opposition while he plundered, burned, and sank some 
forty or fifty of their vessels and destroyed immense 
quantities of provisions. After this "singeing the King's 
beard," as he called it, Drake sailed along the coast, 
leaving terror and destruction in his wake. By reason 
of his attack the Spanish Armada was prevented from 
sailing for England until the following year. 

225. Philip's Plan. — Philip's plan was clearly mapped 
out. The fleet was to sail from Lisbon to the English 
Channel. When off Calais, the Duke of Parma, who 




SIR FRANCIS DRAKE 



ENGLISHMEN FIGHT AGAINST SPAIN 



313 



men unite 



was then at Dunkirk, on the Flemish coast, was to come 
with a large army on transports to meet it. The Armada 
was to escort Parma across the Channel, then keep off 
the English and Dutch fleets, while Parma and his army- 
should attack London. Parma alone bitterly opposed 
this plan. He knew that it would be next to impossible 
to get his men across the Channel, since they would have 
to face not only unfavorable weather, but the ships of 
the Dutch and the English. 

226. England Prepares for the Armada. — ^At the All English- 
approach of the Armada the excitement in England was 
intense. The royal fleet 
was not large, but scores 
of privateers joined it. 
Men and cities furnished 
ships; farmers and fish- 
ermen from all over the 
kingdom hastened to the 
front as volunteers. In 
fact, all ranks and classes 
joined, for love of country, 
in a united effort to ward 
off the invader. Seamen 
were glad of a chance to 
fight Spain. A great wave 
of national feeling made 
men forget religious dif- 
ferences, and Catholic 
and Protestant stood 

side by side ready to fight to the death for England. The 
commander of the English fleet was himself a Cathohc. 




ENGLISH MAN-OF-WAK ABOUT 1588 



314 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



The brave 
spirit of 
Queen 
Elizabeth 



The Armada 
arrives 



The English 
fleet sails 



In the hour of England's need. Queen EHzabeth showed 
her real greatness. Her self-confidence and unflinching 
courage gave confidence and courage to the people. She 
went out to Tilbury, where the raw recruits were gather- 
ing, and addressed the camp. "I have placed my chief- 
est strength and safeguard in the loyal hearts and good- 
will of my subjects/' she said to them, "and therefore 
I am come amongst you, as you see, resolved, in the midst 
and heat of battle, to live or die amongst you all. I know 
that I have the body but of a weak and feeble woman, 
but I have the heart of a King, and of a King of England, 
too." Her words and spirit aroused great enthusiasm. 

227. The Defeat of the Armada. — Lord Howard of 
Effingham commanded in name, but Drake was the real 
admiral; and the other chief officers 
included such famous sea-captains 
as Norris, Frobisher, and Hawkins. 
Their hasty preparations having 
been made, the English waited with 
eagerness the approach of the great 
fleet. It was late in arriving, but 
finally, when least expected, on the 
afternoon of Friday, July 19, 1588, 
it was sighted off the English coast. 
It is said that when the news 
reached Plymouth, Drake was play- 
ing bowls with the chief officers of the fleet. He realized 
the great danger, but gave no sign of alarm. Indeed 
he finished his game. By the next morning, however, the 
ships, in the face of a strong wind, had cleared the harbor 
and were beating along the coast to meet the foe. 





ENGLISHMEN FIGHT AGAINST SPAIN 315 

The Armada had 134 ships. They were large and fine The two 
and very completely equipped, but they moved clumsily ^®®*^ 
and slowly. The English ships were more numerous than 
the Spanish. They were also much 
lighter and more active, and had 
more guns and better seamen. More- 
over, their commanders were old sea- 
dogs whose homes were on the water. 
Many of them had measured swords 
with Spaniards upon the sea. For 
eight days a running fight was kept 
up as the Armada sailed along the 
Channel toward Calais. 

The English, shunning fights at close quarters, hung The clumsy 
around the great fleet, pouring shot into the Spanish hulls the ifgh^t p?n- 
and racing away again. The Spanish galleons, "gilded, ^^^^^ 
towered, floating castles with their gaudy standards and 
their martial music," were too clumsy to give chase. 
They formed a beautiful crescent seven miles across; 
but they were no match in action for the light pin- 
naces of the English. 

Many hot encounters took place. One of the finest Drake a 
fiag-ships surrendered to Drake without a protest when Spaniards ^ 
it fell in his way. His very name was a terror to the 
Spaniards. On the second Saturday of the long fight 
the Armada anchored off Calais and waited for Parma, 
who had been blockaded by the Dutch fleet at Dunkirk, 
only six leagues away. 

To prevent the two forces from uniting, the English The English 
sent fire-ships among the Spanish galleons. Just after ^'^ ^^ 
midnight eight flaming vessels bore down on the terrified 



316 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



The 

Spaniards 
in great 
danger 



Spaniards. The whole fleet fell into confusion, cutting 
their cables and getting hopelessly entangled with each 
other. The next morning: the scattered vessels were 




ONE OF THE FINEST FLAG-SHIPS SURRENDERED TO DRAKE WITHOUT A PROTEST WHEN 
IT FELL IN HIS WAY 

being driven headlong by a furious wind. Forty were 
separated from the rest, and on these the English bore 
down. In as hot a battle as ever was fought, all but six- 
teen Spanish ships were destroyed. 

It seemed that the wind would complete the victory, 
for it came out of the north-west and headed the Armada 
straight on to the shoals of Flanders. The English 
waited in grim delight to see their foes carried to their 
doom. At last, when the Spaniards, overwhelmed with 
fear, were on their knees praying for deliverance, a sud- 
den shift of wind came and carried them safely off again 
and out to sea. 








DSCK SCENE ON ONE OF THE SHIPS OF THE ARMADA DURING THE FIGHT, SHOWING 
SOME OF THE SPANISH ARMOR OF THAT TIME 



ai7 



318 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



Panic 
among the 
Spaniards 



Storms and 
wrecks 



The shat- 
tered fleet 



The 

Netherlands 
saved from 
Philip 



Philip's wars 
in the 

Netherlands 
strengthen 
England 



The English did not despair, though their provisions 
and ammunition were practically gone. Keeping up a 
good face and hiding their real weakness, they gave chase 
for two days. The Spaniards fled before them in panic. 

228. Results of the Great Defeat. — ^At last, however, 
a long-expected tempest came and released the wearied 
Enghsh fighters. For a time at least the Spaniards 
could do no harm. As it turned out, the Armada was 
never to harm any nation again. In the succession of 
storms which followed, the great fleet went to its doom 
among rocks and crags and shoals. Some forty ships 
were wrecked on the Orkney Islands, the coast of Ireland, 
and the English coast. Fifty- three useless wrecks reached 
Spain. Possibly a third of the crews survived. Most 
of the leaders were dead or in captivity. Philip had 
spent 6,000,000 ducats on the fleet, and there was as 
much more in the treasure chests on board. All this had 
gone for nothing, in the face of the daring patriotism of 
the English seamen and the stubborn pluck of the Dutch, 
who had held Parma at bay. 

It is said that when Philip received the news of the- 
disaster his countenance did not change. Turning to 
the defeated admiral, he calmly remarked, "I sent you 
to war with men but not with the winds.'' He could 
not know, nor could any one know then, how the defeat 
had weakened Spain. It was now impossible for Philip 
to conquer the United Netherlands, which finally secured 
their independence. Moreover, in his attempt to weaken 
the Dutch, he had strengthened England in two ways. 
In the first place, his persecution had driven from such 
cities as Antwerp thousands of merchants and manu- 



ENGLISHMEN FIGHT AGAINST SPAIN 319 

facturei-s who thereafter made their homes in England 
and built up EngHsh industries. In the second place^ it 
had greatly reduced the Dutch carrying trade^ much of 
which passed at once into the hands of Enghsh merchants 
and ship-owners. 

Philip did not know how strong his despised rival had Spain loses 
become, nor did he know that Spain could never again supremacy 
attack England with any hope of success. When the 
little island kingdom crushed the great Armada it be- 
came certain that henceforth Spain was not to be the 
greatest sea power in the world. And with her naval 
supremacy lost; it was no longer possible for her to pro- 
tect and control her vast empire. A large part of her 
possessions was, as we have seen, in the many Spanish- 
American states, where the impress of her language, 
her literature, her religion, and her ways of living can 
still be traced. These possessions, now that her power 
on the seas was waning, she was destined to lose. 

But Spain's loss was England's gain. The outcome of England 
the duel with the greatest sea power of the world gave placi among 
England courage and self-reliance. After the defeat of ^^^fd^^^ 
the Armada she at once took a prominent place among powers 
the great world powers, and along with the growth of 
her navy went the growth of what was to become a 
mighty empire. 

THINGS TO REMEMBER 

1. When Queen Elizabeth saw that PhiHp II would crush the 
Netherlands if the}^ were left to fight their battles single-handed 
she sent them help. 2. Phihp's purpose was to seize the English 
throne and add England to his empire. 3. All Englishmen joined. 



320 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



for love of country, in a united effort to ward off the Spanish lu- 
vaders. 4. Queen Elizabeth's self-confidence and unflinching cour- 
age gave confidence and courage to the people. 5. The Armada 
met with overwhelming defeat. 6. There were three striking 
results of this defeat: (1) the Netherlands were saved from Philip; 
(2) Spain lost her naval supremacy; and (3) England took her place 
among the great world powers. 

TO THE PUPIL 

1. Why did England at last send aid to the Netherlands? 

2. "Who was Sir Philip Sidney, and what do you admire in him? 

3. What were the purposes of Philip II? 

4. What is meant by Drake's "singeing the King's beard"? 

5. Tell what you can about the way in which all Englishmen united to 
drive off the invaders. How did Queen Elizabeth show her brave spirit? 

6. How long did the battle last and what kind of battle was it? 

7. What were the many results of the great defeat? 



CHAPTER XXVIII 
ENGLISH VOYAGES YvHESTWARD 



Spain in the 
full blaze of 
her glory 



English 
explorers 



229. England in the New World. — Until the defeat 
of the Armada Spain was in the full blaze of her glory. 
Her empire in the New World was established, the Dutch 
were partially subdued, Portugal was hers by conquest, 
and England seemed hardly beyond her grasp. As we 
have seen, all Europe stood in fear of her. In striking 
contrast to her grandeur and power was the untried 
strength of the English nation and the slender thread of 
discovery and settlement connecting England with the 
New World. 

Up to this time her explorers had not ventured into 
that part of America to which Spain laid claim. Martin 



ENGLISH VOYAGES WESTWARD 



321 



Frobisher had visited the coast far to the north, boldly 
searching for a north-west passage to India, and had dis- 
covered the strait which bears his name (1576). John English 
Cabot also had voyaged along the eastern coast, as we p"^^*®®^^ 
have already noticed, and English privateers had taken 
part in many encounters with Spanish merchant-men on 
the high seas. Chief of these was Francis Drake, whose 
brilliant exploits on the Spanish main and elsewhere had 
made even Philip II uneasy. But the English had gained 
no permanent footing in the New World, and there was 
nothing, it seemed, to show that Spain's great rival for 
power in America had already made a start in the race. 
We have now to look for the beginnings which led to that 
struggle in America. 

230. Sir Humphrey Gilbert's Attempts to Plant a Sir 
Colony. — Sir Humphrey Gilbert was the first Englishman oubert^^^ 
to attempt a settlement in the New 
World. Unlike some of the priva- 
teersmen, he was not a lawless ad- 
venturer, but a gentleman and a 
scholar as well as a trained soldier, 
and one of the noblest men of his 
time. It was the great desire of his 
life to found in America an English 
colony, and having received a pat- 
ent from the Queen, he set out in 
1578 with eleven ships. 

The first expedition was a total 
failure. Five years later, however, he made a second at- Gilbert's 
tempt. Sir Walter Raleigh furnished one ship, the best colony 
of the little fleet, and Gilbert managed to get four more. 




em HUMPHREY GILBERT 



322 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



Ill-luck 
follows the 
expedition 



Fresh 
troubles 



Gilbert 

starts 

homeward 



Gilbert's 
tiny vessel 
goes down 
at sea 



With him went 260 men skilled in various trades — 
masonS; miners, carpenters, and so on; for he intended 
to found a permanent colony. He took trinkets also in 
order to attract the natives into trading. 

But ill-luck followed the expedition from the very first. 
The ship furnished by Raleigh deserted almost at the 
outset. Two others were separated from the fleet during 
the voyage, but rejoined Gilbert at Newfoundland. In 
St. John's harbor were many ships of various nations, 
but the English were welcomed cordially. They took 
possession of the land in the name of the Queen of Eng- 
land. 

Soon fresh troubles began. The colonists did not feel 
much interest in the venture, except for what they could 
get out of it -for themselves. This we should expect of 
them, for they were mainly adventurers of a low type. 
Many deserted and managed to get passage home in 
other vessels. Others fell sick. Gilbert, leaving one 
ship to take home the invalids, started southward to 
explore the country. Then came a most discouraging 
loss. His best remaining ship struck on a rock and went 
down, taking most of the provisions and supphes. Only 
a few of the crew escaped. 

So many disasters followed that Gilbert, much against 
his will, had to give up his quest and start for home. He 
sailed in the Squirrel, the tinier of the two remaining ships, 
though his friends begged him not to do so, for she was 
overloaded. But he had come over in her and he would 
not desert his little company, he said. In a heavy storm 
the tiny vessel went down, and neither vessel nor crew 
was ever seen again. The men in the other ship said they 



ENGLISH VOYAGES WESTWARD 323 

last saw Gilbert, '^sitting abaft with a book in his hand, * 
and crying to us, ^We are as near heaven by sea as by 
land/ But the same night suddenly the frigate's hghts 
went out, and in that moment she was swallowed up.'' 
He has been called ^Hhe father of English colonization. '^ 

231. Sir Walter Raleigh Sends an Expedition to Raleigh' 
America. — Gilbert's great desire, namely, to plant English ^lant a 
colonies in America, was strongly held also by Raleigh, *^°^°°y 
his half-brother. Raleigh made careful 
plans, and gained permission from the 
Queen to make discoveries and take pos- 
session of lands not already occupied by 
any Christian prince. His wish was to 
plant a colony in the country north of 
Florida, a land which England claimed 
because of the discoveries of John Cabot. 
In 1584, about the time Philip H was 
beginning to gather ships for the Ar- 
mada, Raleigh sent two vessels to the 
New World to find out something about the country. 

His captains brought back, as products of the expedition, The new 
two Indians and some skins of wild animals, and gave called^ 
such a glowing account of the land they had seen, of its ^^^smia 
beautiful trees and fertile soil, that Queen Elizabeth said 
it should be called Virginia, in honor of herself, the 
virgin Queen. 

232. Raleigh's First Colony. — ^The next year Raleigh The 
sent out a colony of 108 persons. His cousin, Sir Richard cnieHo tiie 
Grenville, was commander of the fleet, and Ralph Lane ^^^^^ 
governor of the colony. They landed at Roanoke Island. 

Here they met with great misfortunes, in large measure 




SIR WALTER RALEIGH 



324 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



due to their harsh treatment of the Indians. The story 
is told that when an Indian stole a silver cup from the 
colonists they punished the whole tribe by burning their 
village. Such cruelty, of course, made the Indians hate 
the white men. 

Besides bringing upon themselves the ill-will of the na- 
tives, which led to many troubles, they ran short of food, 
and Grenville sailed to England for more. During his 
absence Lane started out to explore the Roanoke River, 
of which he had heard wonderful tales from the Indians. 
This stream, they said, ran through a land rich with min- 
erals. Its waters flowed from a fountain so near the South 
Sea that in time of storm the waves broke over into the 
fountain. Near this stream, they declared, was a town 
with walls of pearls. Lane and his followers, too eager 
in believing such tales, went in search of the fountain 
and the wonderful town. After great hardships and suf- 
fering they returned, having been obliged to eat their 
dogs to keep from starving. 

During his absence things had gone badly at the set- 
tlement. Everybody felt discouraged and the future 
looked gloomy. About this time Sir Francis Drake with 
a fleet of twenty-three vessels anchored near Roanoke 
Island. He had come from the West Indies, where he 
had been plundering the Spanish settlements. On hear- 
ing of the condition of the colonists he offered to leave a 
part of his fleet with provisions. But when a heavy 
storm came up all the colonists decided that they wished 
to return to England. 

At their request he took them all aboard, and they 
sailed for home, little dreaming that Grenville with a full 



ENGLISH VOYAGES WESTWARD 



325 



supply of provisions would reach Roanoke in about 
three weeks, only to find the settlement deserted. They 
had found no gold, but they carried to England things 




"c3 







^■-^ ^ 






-^t iJa<i^''- 









?].> 











THE ARRIVAL OF THE ENGLISHMEN IN VIRGINIA. FROM A DRAWING BY JOHN WHITE, 

OF Raleigh's first colony, 1585 



that had quite as much value as gold or precious stones 
— tobacco, potatoes, and Indian-corn. No one then 
thought so, however. 

233. Raleigh's Second Colony. — The wealth that lay 
hidden in the soil was yet unknown, and there was no 
enthusiasm over the new colony of Virginia. Most men 
would by this time have lost hope. But Raleigh showed 
splendid courage in not letting the failure of his first 
attempt to found a colony dishearten him. In 1587 he 
sent to Roanoke a second company under Captain John 
White. This colony contained 150 men, 17 women, and 



326 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



11 children. Raleigh himself wished to join it, but the 
Queen would not allow him to leave her court. He 
directed that the colonists, after first landing at Roanoke 
Island to pick up 15 men who had been left there by 
Grenville, should make a settlement at Chesapeake Bay. 

The men, however, were not to be found; and after 
staying on the island a while the sailors refused to pro- 
ceed to the Chesapeake, for the summer was far spent. 
So the colonists were obliged to remain where they were. 

Like the earlier settlers, they were harsh in their treat- 
ment of the Indians, and began to have trouble with 
them. Finally provisions began to fail, and they begged 
Captain White to go to England for fresh supplies. Un- 
willingly he consented, for he did not like to leave the 
colonists nor to separate himself from his little grand- 
daughter, Virginia Dare, who was the first white child 
born in the New World. 

He reached home just as his countrymen were pre- 
paring to meet the attack of the Spanish Armada. As we 
have seen, England needed all the ships that her seamen 
could muster. The two small vessels, therefore, which 
Raleigh fitted out for the colony, had to remain at home. 
It was almost three years before Captain White could 
return to Roanoke. He sailed then not on his own ves- 
sel, but as a passenger on a merchant-ship bound for 
the West Indies. AVhen he reached Roanoke the only 
traces he could discover of the missing colonists were 
some chests of books, some maps, and some fire-arms. 

When Captain White had gone to England three years 
before, the colonists had agreed that if they should leave 
the place for any reason they would cut into the bark of 



ENGLISH VOYAGES WESTWARD 



327 



colony 



a tree the name of the place to which they were going. If 
they were in distress they would cut a cross above the 
name. Captain White found ^^Croatoan" cut in a tree 
in capital letters, but he found no cross. Croatoan is 
the name of an island near Roanoke. White urged the 
captain of the vessel to carry him there. But as the 
weather had become stormy the captain refused. 

AVhat became of the lost colony has never been surely The lost 
known. Some twczty years afterward, however, a Vir- 
ginia Indian told 
one of Captain New- 
port's company that 
after many years 
the medicine - men 
had grown jealous 
of the whites, and 
just before New- 
port's arrival had 
had them all killed 

except four men, two boys, and one girl, who had been 
adopted into an Indian tribe. A part of the tribe seems 
to have gone to North Carolina; and some think that 
the bulk of the lost colony was spared and went with 
them. Raleigh himself sent out five expeditions in 
search of his lost colony, but without success. 

Thus Raleigh failed in one of the greatest desires of A new idea 
his life, namely, to make a new England in America. 
The undertaking cost him what would be in our money 
a million dollars, and both colonies were complete fail- 
ures. Yet the venture was by no means a useless one, 
since it called attention to a new idea, namely, that the 




THE LOST COLONT 



328 



AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



real value of America did not lie in its mines of silver a,nd 
gold, and that the best way to secm^e a hold upon the 
new country was through permanent colonies. 

234. Two Great Contests. — In the last two divisions 
of this book — ^^The Discovery of the Western World" and 
''Rival Powers in Europe and America" — we have noted 
two great contests. The first was between Portugal 
and Spain in their race to reach the Indies by a water 
route. The second was shared in by four European 
rivals — Spain, England, France, and the Netherlands — 
and was a struggle for power in Europe and in America. 
In the first contest Portuguese mariners, by sailing east, 
found the ocean route to the Indies, while Columbus, by 
sailing west, discovered the New World. In the second 
contest the struggle for power was extended from Europe 
to America by the explorers and conquerors of the 
newly discovered lands. 

Columbus in four voyages reached Cuba, Hayti, and 
the other West India islands, the northern coast of South 
America, and the eastern coast of Central America. 
John Cabot, who sailed under the English flag in his 
voyage to Labrador, was the first to discover the main- 
land. In a second voyage he may have sailed along 
the coast of North America as far south as Florida. 
But at that time nobody knew whether the New 
AYorld was an immense island like Australia, a penin- 
sula extending in a south-easterly direction from Asia, 
or a distinct continent. AVhen, however, Balboa discov- 
ered the Pacific Ocean he led the way to the important 
discovery that South America was not a part of Asia; 
and when Magellan in his famous voyage sailed through 



ENGLISH VOYAGES WESTWARD 329 

the Strait of Magellan he clearly proved that America 
was a distinct continent. 

Balboa and Magellan, you will remember, made their other 
discoveries in the name of Spain, and in the first half expbrers 
of the sixteenth century Spanish explorers were most 
active in the New World. Cortez made an expedition 
to Mexico and Pizarro to Peru; while farther to the north 
De Leon, Narvaez, and De Soto all landed on the western 
coast of Florida and marched inland, De Soto discover- 
ing the Mississippi River. France, however, was not Cartier 
idle; for Cartier not only explored the Gulf of St. Law- 
rence, but sailed up the St. Lawrence River as far as the 
site of Montreal. 

2^q. Two Results of AH These Explorations. — All European 
, , . , . 1 • i X rivals claim 

these explorations had two mterestmg and important territory 
results. In the first place, through them men were learn- ^orid^^'' 
ing more about the geography of the New World. In 
the second place, by reason of discoveries, explorations, 
or conquests, European rivals based their claims upon 
territory in the New World. Spain claimed all of North 
and South America, except Brazil, which Portugal 
claimed. England claimed North America, and France 
claimed the valley of the St. Lawrence. 

These claims led to serious disagreements, which not A mighty 
only increased the bitterness of the rival powers toward co^oiV^e 
each other in the Old World, but prolonged the mighty New World 
, struggle on the part of the Spaniards, the French, and 
the English for control of the New World. In the course 
of years, as you will learn in your later study, the Dutch 
also joined in this struggle. It will be interesting for 
you to find out in your future reading which of these 



330 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 

four European rivals succeeded, which failed, and the 
reasons for success and failure. 
Why we 236. The End of Our Journey. — The point at length 

s op ere -^^^ ^^^^ reached when colony planting was about to 
begin in that part of America which is now our country; 
for in less than twenty years after the defeat of the Span- 
ish Armada the first permanent English colony was es- 
tablished at Jamestown, Virginia (1607). And here, on 
the threshold of what is commonly called American his- 
toiy, our journey ends. 
Our long It is a long journey that we have taken together, 

togeSier through more than 2,000 years of history and includ- 
ing visits to many countries. We have been to Greece 
and Italy; to Germany, France, Spain, and Portugal; 
to Denmark and Holland and England. We have 
followed fearless explorers to South America and North 
The purpose America and even round the world. If the journey 
journey ^^^s succeedcd in its purpose, this thought has come 
to you many times: How much lies back of American 
history; how many things of to-day had their beginning 
centuries ago and in distant lands; and how different our 
life would be were it not for what we have gained from 
the Greeks and the Romans, from the men of the Middle 
Ages and of more recent times. 
A^nerica As you grow older you will feel more keenly how 

to^Se^st greatly America is indebted to the past. For as you 
study the history of European countries you will learn 
of many events of far-reaching influence which we, in our 
rapid journey, were forced to overlook. You will le? "^ 
of many great souls besides the few this book has mc.j 
tioned — not alone kings and queens and statesmen and 



ENGLISH VOYAGES WESTWARD 331 

warriors and explorers, but preachers, teachers, inventors, 

artists, poets. You will learn, too, that we are indebted ' 

not only to prominent leaders, but to many who find 

Httle or no place in histories— to hard-working peasants, 

to craftsmen leading industrious lives, to unselfish mothers Gentle 

everywhere whose very names are forgotten. For many wWcr""^" 

of the gentler influences which make life wholesome and "^akeiife 

TP,. , ^ morewhole- 

upliitmg can be traced not to those whose greatness is some 
apparent, but to the common people. 

In parting company, after our long journey together, America 
let it be with this thought in mind: Just as many things the worW 
of to-day had their beginning centuries ago and in dis- 
tant lands, so here in America much is being done the 
influence of which is widely felt and will continue to be 
widely felt ages hence. The httle Jamestown colony has 
grown into a nation second to no other in the world, 
and its responsibility is correspondingly great. America, 
which has received so many gifts from Europe, must now 
do her best for the world. 

But a nation is made up of individuals, and its strength. Every one 
moral and intellectual, depends upon their strength.- ll^iot^ 
What the individuals are, what you and I and others are, 
that will the nation be. Few of us can do great deeds 
that will attract world-wide attention, but if we do what 
we think is right, unselfishly serving those about us, we 
are as truly patriots as Leonidas, or the Chevalier Bayard, 
or " Good Queen Bess.'' We are helping America to help 
the world. In the long run, it is the httle deeds of daily 
life that leave the deepest impression and most truly 
enrich the lives of men and women. 



332 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 



THINGS TO REMEMBER 

1. Up to the time when England defeated the Armada her ex- 
plorers had not ventured into that part of America to which Spain 
laid claim. 2. The great desire of Sir Humphrey Gilbert was to 
found in America an English colony; but he failed. 3. Sir Walter 
Raleigh wished to make a new England in America. 4. Although 
both his colonies were complete failures, he called attention to a 
new idea, namely, that the best way to secure a hold upon a new 
country was through permanent colonies. 5. There were two great 
contests: the first was between Portugal and Spain in their race to 
reach the Indies by a water route; and the second was a struggle 
on the part of Spain, England, France, and the Netherlands for 
power in Europe and in America. 

TO THE PUPIL 

1. What had English explorers done in America up to the time when the 
Armada was defeated? 

2. What did Sir Humphrey Gilbert try to do, and with what result? 

3. What did Raleigh try to do ? 

4. Tell all you can about his first colony; about his second colony. 
What became of his second colony ? 

5. What was Raleigh's new idea? 

6. What were the two great contests in Europe? 

7. Tell in a few words what each of the following men accomplished: 
Da Gama, Columbus, Cabot, Balboa, Magellan, Cortez, Pizarro, De Soto, 
and Cartier. 

8. What countries have we visited in our long journey together? 
Point them out on the map. Diiring the journey, what thought has come 
to you many times ? 

9. What do you mean by saying that America owes a debt to the past? 
How can she help the world? 

10. How can every American boy or girl be a patriot? 



PRONUNCIATION OF PROPER NAMES 



Achilles (a-kil'ez). 

Acropolis (a-krop'o-lis) . 

^gean (e-je'an). 

jEneas (e-ne'as). 

Agamemnon (ag-a-mem'non). 

Alaric (ara-rik). 

Alexandria (al-eg-zan'dri-a) . 

Alexius (a-lek'si-us). 

Appian (ap'i-an). 

Arabia (a-ra'bi-a). 

Arabs (ar'abz). 

Argonauts (ar'go-natz). 

Ariovistus (a'ri-o-vis'tus) . 

Aristotle (ar'is-totl). 

Armada (ar-ma'da). 

Athene (a-the'ne). 

Attila (at'i-la). 

Augustine (a-gus'tin or a/gus-tin). 

Aztecs (az'teks). 

Babylonians (bab-i-l6'ni-anz). 
Baeda (be 'da). 
Balboa (bal-bo'a). 
Barbarossa (bar-ba-ros'a). 
Barcelona (bar-se-lo'na) . 
Bayard (ba'ard). 
Blondel (blon-del'). 



Bruges (bro'jes). 
Burgundians (ber-gun'di-anz). 
Byzantitmi (bi-zan'tium). 

Capitoline (kap'i-to-lln). 
Carcassonne (kar-ka-son'). 
Carthage (kar'thaj). 
Cassivelaunus (kas'i-ve-la'nus) . 
Charlemagne (char'le-man) . 
Cincinnatus (sin-si-na'tus). 
Clovis (klo'vis). 

Coligny (ko-len-ye' or ko-len'ye). 
Coliseum (kori-se'um). 
Constantinople (kon-stan-ti-no'i)l) . 
Corinth (kor'inth). 
Cortez (kor'tez). 
Croatoan (kro-ton'). 

De Leon (da la-on'). 

De Narvaez (da nar-va-eth'). 

Diaz (de'ath). 

Ephesus (ef'e-sus). 
Eratosthenes (er-a-tos'the-nez) . 
Ericsson (er'ik-son). 
Ethelbert (eth'el-bert). 
Etruscans (e-trus'kanz). 







KEY TO 


PRONUNCIATION* 








a as in 


I fat 


e as in mete 


o ; 


as in 


I note 


a " 


fate 


e 


" her 


6 


" 


nor 


a '' 


far 


i 


" pin 


6 


" 


move 


a '' 


ask 


1 


'' pine 


u 


" 


tub 


e " 


met 


o 


"' not 


ti 


11 


mute 



A single dot under a vowel in an unaccented syllable indicates its abbre- 
viation and lightening, without absolute loss of distinctive quality. 
Thus: 

a as in prelate, courage o as in eulogy, democrat 

e " episcopal u '' singular, education 

A double dot under any vowel indicates the short u-sound, as in but. 

* According to Century Dictionary. 

833 



334 



PRONUNCIATION OF PROPER NAMES 



Frobisher (fro'bish-er). 

Genoa (jen'o-a). 
Granada (gra-na'da). 

Hamilcar (ha-mirkar). 
Hannibal (han'i-bal) . 
Hellenes (her-enzj. 
Hellespont (heres-pont). 
Hengist (heng'gist). 
Hercules (her'ku-lez). 
Herodotus (he-rod'o-tus). 
Hispaniola (his-pa'ni-6'la). 
Horatius (lio-ra'shi-us) . 
Huguenots (hu'ge-nots). 

Leicester (les'ter). 
Leonidas (le-on'i-das). 
Leyden (li'den). 

Magellan (ma-jeran). 
Magna Charta (mag'na kiir'ta). 
Marathon (mar'a-thonj. 
Marius (ma'ri-us). 
Marseilles (mar-saiz'). 
Miletus (mi-le'tus), 
Miltiades (mil-tl'a-dez). 
Montezuma (mon-te-z6'ma). 

Nibelungenlied (ne-be-loong-en-let'). 

Odysseus (o-dis'us). 

Palestine (pares-tin). 
Palos (pa-los'). 
Panama (pa-na-ma') . 
Parliament (par'li-ment) . 
Parma (par'ma). 



Parthenon (par'the-non) . 
Patrician (pa-trish'an). 
Penates (pe-na'tez). 
Pericles (per'i-klez). 
Phidias (fid'i-as). 
Pizarro (piz-a'ro). 
Plataea (pla-te'a). 
Plebeians (ple-be'yanz). 
Pontius (pon'shus). 
Ptolemy (tore-mi). 

Ravenna (ra-ven'a). 
Rotenburg (r5'ten-b6rg). 

Saladin (sal'a-din). 
Saracens (sar'a-senz), 
Scipio (sip'i-o). 
Siegfried (seg'fred). 
Socrates (sok'ra-tez). 

Thebes (thebz). 
Themistocles (the-mis'to-klez) . 
Theodosius (the-o-do'shi-us). 
Thermopyl^ (ther-mop'i-le). 
Tiberius (ti-be'ri-us). 
Trasimene (tras-i-me'ne) . 

Ulysses (u-lis'ez). 

Valhalla (val-hara). 
Valkyrie (val-kl're). 
Vercingetorix (ver-sin-jet'o-riks). 
Verrazano (ver-rat-sa'n5).' 
Vespucius (ves-po'shi-us). 
Vikings (vi'kingz). 

Xerxes (zerk'sez). 



INDEX 



Abbey, Westminster, 145 

Abbott, 160, 188 

Achilles, 16, 17, 49, 51 

Acropolis, 32, 34 

JEgean Sea, 9, 13, 18 

iEneas, 58 

Agamemnon, 16 

Alaric, 121-125 

Alexander the Great, 46, 49-54 

Alexander VI, 250 

Alexandria, 52-54 

Alexius, Emperor, 209 

Alfred the Great, 138-143 

Alphabet, invention of, 7, 8 

Alva, Duke of, 306, 307 

Amphitheatre, 80, 86 

Angles, 130, 132, 153 

Anglo-Saxons, 153 

Appian Way, 96 

Aqueducts, 96-98 

Arabians, civilization, 225, 226, 236 

Arabs, 204 

Argonauts, 15 

Ariovistus, 75, 76 

Aristotle, 46, 49 

Armada, Spanish. 312-319, 326 

Art, 34, 99 

Asia, European trade with, 219- 

223, 230-232 
Assembly, Greek, 43, 44 
Assembly of Freemen, 116 
Athene, 32-35 
Athenians, 20, 28-39 
Athens, 18-21, 28-46 
Attica, 26, 28 
Attila, 121 

Augustine, Saint, 133-135, 300 
Augustus, Emperor, 85, 101, 105 
Aztecs, the, 262-266 

Babylonians, 7 
Bseda, 136 
Balboa, 255, 256 
Barbarossa, Frederick, 213 
Barcelona, 243 
Baths, Roman, 80, 88, 89 
Bayard, Chevalier, 298, 299 
''Beggars," the, 306 



Belgium, 302 
Benedict, Saint, 188, 192 
Bishop, 169, 185, 186 
Blondel, 216 

Books, 101, 102, 194-196 
Britain, 77-80, 130-138 
Bruges, 81, 222 
Burgundians, 123 
Byzantium, 110 

Cabot, John, 250-252, 280, 321 

Cabot, Sebastian, 252 

Caesar, Julius, 75-82, 91, 105, 114 

Calvin, John, 294 

Canterbury, 134, 135 

Capitoline Hill, 95 

Caravans, 52, 231 

Carcassonne, 181 

Carthage, 65-74 

Cartier, 259, 260, 297 

Cassivelaunus, 78 

Castle, the, 161-164 

Catacombs, 109, 110 

Cathedrals, 146, 182 

Charlemagne, 129, 157, 196 

Charles V, 298, 299, 304 

Charter, the Great, 149, 150 

Charters, for towns, 182 

Chester, 80, 181 

China, 230, 259 

Chivalry, 166-173 

Christianity, 105-110, 131-136, 200, 

201 
Church, Roman Cathohc, 186 
Church, the Christian, 185, 186 
Cincinnatus, 61 
Circus Maximus, 87 
Classics, the Greek and Roman, 196 
Clovis, 128, 129 
Cluny, 189, 190 
Coligny, 300 
Coliseum, the, 86 
Colonies, Greek, 13, 47; Roman, 64, 

65; Spanish, 277 
Columbus, 54, 234-248 
Commerce, 219-222 
Constantine, the Emperor, 110, 185 
Constantinople, 110, 205, 208, 231 

335 



33o 



INDEX 



Corinth, 18 
Cortez, 261-266 
Crassus, 91 
Croatoan, 327 
Crusades, the, 203-218 
Cuba, 242 
Cuneiform writing, 7, 8 

Da Gama, Vasco, 246, 252-255 

Danes, 130, 136, 138-143 

Danube, 113, 114 

Darius, 18, 19 

De Leon, 270 

De Montfort, 151 

De Narvaez, 270 

De Soto, 268, 270-274 

Diaz, 233, 234 

Discus thrower, 34 

Drake, Sir Francis, 287-293, 311,312 

Druids, 131 

Dutch, the, 302-309 

East, the, 219, 220, 229, 250. 254- 

256 
Eastern Empire, 122, 205 
Education, 38-41, 99-101, 196-197 
Edward I, 151 
Egypt, 52, 187, 221 
Egyptians, 7 
Ehzabeth, Queen, 280-283, 310, 

312, 314, 323 
Empire, the Roman, 85 
England, 279-295, 320-328 
Ephesus, 14 
Eratosthenes, 53 
Ericsson, Leif, 240 
Ethelbert, King, 133 
Etruscans, 59 

Ferdinand, King, 235, 236, 243, 

275 
Feudal system, 155-173, 223, 224 
Florida, 270, 301 
Forum, the, 91, 92 
France, 296-301 
Francis I, 259, 296-299 
Franks, the, 128 
French, the, 259-260 
Frobisher, 314-321 

Gaul, 75-83, 128 
Genoa, 220, 221, 230, 232, 235 
Geographical conditions in Greece, 
10-12; in Italy, 56, 57 



Germans, the, 75, 77, 113-127 
Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, 321-323 
Gladiatorial contests, 86 
Godfrey of Boulogne, 212 
Gods and Goddesses, Greek, 35; 

Roman, 104, 105; German, 118- 

120 
Golden Fleece, story of, 14, 15 
Golden House of Nero, 89 
Good Hope, Cape of, 234, 256 
Goths, 121-125 
Granada, 236 
Greece, 10-13 
Greek colonies, 13, 47 
Greek education, 38-41 
Greek religion, 35 
Greeks, 9-54, 98-100, 111, 112 
Greenland, 238 
Gregory I, 132, 133 
Gregory VIII, 213 
Grenville, Sir Richard, 323, 324 
Guilds, 181-184 
Gunpowder, 5, 222 
Gymnasiums, 29, 88 

Hamilcar, 68 

Hannibal, 68-74 

Hastings, battle of, 145 

Hawkins, 287, 288, 314 

Hayti, 242 

Hellas, 13 

Hellenes, 9 

Hellespont, 22, 50 

Hengist, 130 

Henry, Prince, 232, 233 

Hercules, 15 

Hermits, 187 

Herodotus, 19, 20, 23 

Hispaniola, 242, 244, 261 

Holland, 302, 311 

Holy Land, 147, 203-205 

Holy Roman Empire, 215, 298 

Homer, 16, 49, 101 

Horatius, 58, 59 

Horn, Cape, 291 

Horsa, 130 

Huguenots, 299-301 

Huns, 121, 122 

Iceland, 238 
Iliad, 16, 49, 101, 119 
Immigration laws, 3 
Incas, the, 267-270 
India, 230, 252 



INDEX 



337 



Indians, 260, 270-274 

Inquisition, the, 305, 306 

Inventions, 4, 5 

lona, 188 

Ionia, 34 

Irish Monks of Britain, 135 

Isabella, Queen, 235, 237, 243, 245, 

246, 275 
Italian cities, 220, 255 

Jason, 14, 15 

Jerusalem, 148, 204, 205, 210-212 

John, King of England, 147-150 

Jousts, 170 

Jupiter, 95, 105, 110 

Jutes, 130 

Knight, the, 166-173, 203 

Langton, Stephen, 149 

Lares, 105 

Learning, revival of, 224, 225, 227 

Leicester, 311 

Leonidas, 23-26 

Leopold, Duke of Austria, 214, 215 

Leyden, siege of, 307-309 

Lincoln, 80 

Lisbon, 234, 254, 255 

Literature, 99, 195 

London, 80 

Luther, Martin, 294 

Macedonians, 40 

Magellan, 256-259 

Magna Charta, 149, 150 

Manor, the, 174-178 

Marathon, 19-21 

Mariners' Compass, 5 

Marius, 91 

Marseilles, 48, 215 

Mayflower, 4 

Mexico, 262-266 

Middle Ages, 127 

Miletus, 14 

Military service, feudal, 157, 158 

Miltiades, 19-21 

Minstrels, 166 

Missionaries, 132, 135, 275, 276 

Missions, Spanish, 275, 276 

Mississippi River, 273 

Mohammedans, 204 

Monasterv, the, 135, 136, 146, 185- 



Monks, the, 187-201, 203 

Montezuma, 262-265 

Montreal, 260 

Moors, the, 222, 235, 236 

Moot, 152, 153 

Museum at Alexandria, 53 

Nero, Emperor, 108 
Netherlands, the, 222, 304, 310, 318 
Nibelungenlied, 119 
Normans, the, 144-147 
Northmen, the, 136, 145, 238, 239 
Northumbria, 136 

Odysseus, 17 
Odyssey, 16, 101 
Olympic games, 41, 42 
Olympus, Mount, 11, 35 

Palace, Roman, 89, 131 

Palestine, 203-205 

Palos 241 

Panama, 255, 267, 289, 290 

Parliament, the English, 150, 151, 

154 
Parma, Duke of, 313 
Parthenon, the, 33, 34, 35 
Patricians, the, 60 
Patrick, Saint, 135 
Paul, Saint, 107, 108 
Penates, the, 105 
Pericles, 43, 44 

Persecution of Christians, 107-110 
Persia, 50-52, 221 
Persians, the, 18-27 
Peru, 267-270 
Peter, Saint, 108 
Peter the Hermit, 207, 208, 211 
Phidias, 32, 33 
Philip, Augustus, 148, 213 
Philip II of Spain, 148, 289, 300, 

304-306, 309-311 
Philip of Macedon, 48, 49 
Picts, the, 130 
Pilgrims, 203-206 
Pizarro, 267-270 
Platsea, battle of, 26 
Plato, 46 
Plebeians, 60 
Polo, Marco, 229-230 
Pompey, 91 
Pontius Pilate, 107 
Pope. the. 149. 186, 293 
Portugue;>fi, cne, 232-234, 252-25o 



338 



INDEX 



Printers' Press, 5 
Privateers, 287, 296 
Protestantism, 293, 294 
Ptolemies, 53 
Ptolemy, 54 

Quebec, 260 

Raleigh, Sir Walter, 283, 284, 

321, 323-328 
Ravenna, 123 
Raymond, Count, 212 
Reformation, the, 293, 294 
Religion, 35, 104, 105, 118-120 
Remus, 58 
Representative Government, 151- 

154 
Rhine, the, 113, 114 
Richard I, the Lion-Heart, 147, 

213—216 
Rivals of Spain, 279 
Roads, Roman, 80, 95, 96 
Roanoke Island, 323-326 
Rollo, 144 

Roman Catholic Church, 307 
Roman Empire, 85 
Roman Empire of the East, 122, 205 
Roman Empire of the West, 122 
Roman Province, 105 
Romans, 56, 114, 126 
Rome, the city of, 61, 85-95, 125 
Romulus, 58 
Rotenburg, 181 
Runnymede, 150 

Saint Peter's Church, 109 

Saladin, 213-215 

Saiamis, 26 

Saracens, 211, 212 

Saxons, 130, 132, 153 

Schools, 130, 142, 197 

Scipio, 73 

Scots, 130 

Senate, Roman, 72, 91 

Senlac, battle of, 145 

Serfs, 175-178 

Sicily, 66 

Sidney, Sir Philip, 310 

Siegfried, 120 

Slavery, 29, 89, 90, 100, 275, 288 

Socrates, 44-46 

Spain, 225, 232, 236, 279, 292, 319, 

320 
Spaniards, 236, 274, 277, 300 



Sparta, 18 
Spartans, 20, 39-41 
Statues, Greek, 34 
Sulla, 91 
Syracuse, 48 

Tarquin, 59 

Theatres, 35-37, 86 

Thebes, 18 

Themistocles, 21 

Theodosius the Great, 122 

Thermopylae, 23-26 

Tiberius, 105 

Tournament, the, 170-172 

Towns in the Middle Ages, 179-181 

Trade, 219-222, 230-232, 286-288 

Trasimene, Lake, battle of, 71 

Travel, love of, 219, 229 

Triumph, Roman, 92-95 

Trojan War, 16 

Turks, 204, 205, 214, 231 

Ulysses, 17 

Universities, 53, 197, 226 
Urban, Pope, 205-207, 209 

Valhalla, 117, 119 

Valkyrie, the, 119 

Vandals, 123 

Vassals, 157-161, 174, 175 

Venice, 220, 221, 222, 230, 232, 255 

Venus of Melos, 34 

Vercingetorix, 80-83 

Verrazano, 259 

Vespucius, Americus, 249 

Vesta, 104 

Vikings, the, 136-138, 144, 238 

Villa, Roman, 80, 89 

Vinland, 240 

Walter the Penniless, 208 
Western Empire, 122 
White, Captain, 326, 327 
William of Orange (The Silent), 

307-309 
William the Conqueror, 145, 160 
Wotan (Odin), 118-119 

Xerxes, 22-27 

York, 80 

Zama, battle of, 73 
Zeus, 35 



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